Centrifuge modelling of laccolith intrusion

Laccolith intrusion has been investigated by centrifuge modelling. Silicone putty, representing magma with Bingham rheology, is intruded by overburden pressure through a circular conduit into a stack of paraffin wax layers, which represent sedimentary strata. The model intrusions evolve through a sequence of geometric forms similar to those exhibited by natural laccoliths; the results are also in accord with published mathematical analyses of laccolith formation. The model magma first flows laterally between overburden layers to form a sill. As the sill increases in area, the cover strata are arched upwards into a sinusoidal, ‘bending’ form. Subsequently, the overburden fails abruptly by kinking above the periphery of the intrusion, and the form changes to a cupola separated from surrounding horizontal strata by a sharp inflection in the layering. Finally, strata on the flanks of the cupola undergo a second episode of localized failure. The top of the dome becomes flat, and the dipping flanks become a monoclinal flexure surrounding this ‘kink’ form.A number of variables influence this evolution. Increased overburden strength, thickness of overburden strata, and total thickness of overburden all prolong the bending form to larger intrusion size, delay the localized failure which marks the cupola and kink stages, and reduce the aspect ratio of the intrusion at all stages. Effectively bonded overburden interfaces have a similar effect, but interfaces with sharply defined yield strengths enhance development of the monoclinal flexure. Magmatic driving pressure affects the rate of intrusion, but not the evolution of its form. Intrusion rate is also influenced by magma flow properties, and probably by the form of the feeder conduit. The range of final forms preserved by natural laccoliths probably results from competition between rate of intrusion, controlled by driving pressure and conduit geometry, and rate of chilling of magma in the laccoliths. The model laccoliths form in times that scale to between one and a few tens of years, in agreement with available estimates for natural laccoliths.     

Mechanics of growth of some laccolithic intrusions in the Henry mountains, Utah, II: Bending and failure of overburden layers and sill formation

Deformation of host rocks during growth of a laccolithic intrusion is analyzed using the theory of bending a stack of thin elastic plates. The theoretical model suggests that magma spreading laterally in the form of a sill will eventually gain sufficient leverage on the overlying strata to deflect them upward and form a laccolith. The amount of bending increases as the fourth power of the distance the magma spreads, whereas the overburden resists bending as the third power of its effective thickness. Effective thickness is the thickness of a single layer which has the same resistance to bending as a multilayer of similar length and elastic modulus. The effective thickness of overburden in the Henry Mountains is estimated as between and of the actual thickness. The form of bending is similar for Newtonian, pseudoplastic, and Bingham magmas. The magnitude of the bending depends upon the total upward force and its distribution and is not simply related to magma viscosity as has been suggested by several previous investigators.After elastic bending strata should fail over the periphery of an intrusion, the site of maximum bending strain and differential stress predicted by the theory. Field observations described in Part I correlate well with these predictions. Because bending strains are proportional to layer thickness, strata of comparable strength but different thicknesses fail at different stages of laccolith development. This leads to the different cross-sectional forms of laccoliths observed in the field.The effect of host rocks on sill form and growth is analyzed using the elastic solution for an elliptical hole under uniform pressure. The theory suggests that sill thickness increases in proportion to length. The concentration of high stresses near the sill termination should induce permanent deformation and account for the blunt terminations described in Part I. This blunting is most likely to occur in relatively ductile rocks whereas sills simply split brittle rocks and maintain sharp terminations. The driving pressure in sills can be calculated from measurements of length and termination radius of curvature, if the yield strength of the host rocks can be estimated. This driving pressure must be greater than the overburden pressure, but sills apparently do not form or propagate by lifting their overburdens. Instead they propagate by locally deforming the host rock. After spreading over a distance about three times the effective overburden thickness, the overlying layers begin to bend upward significantly. This stage marks the transition from a sill to a laccolithic intrusion.     

Mechanics of growth of some laccolithic intrusions in the Henry mountains, Utah, I: Field observations, Gilbert's model, physical properties and flow of the magma

The shapes of sills and laccolithic intrusions and associated host rock deformation were studied at several locations on the flanks of the Henry Mountains. Diorite sills range from 0.5 to 10 m in thickness, are less than 1 km² in areal extent, and have blunt terminations. The laccolithic intrusions range from 10 to 200 m in thickness, and from 1 to 3 km² in areal extent. The host rock, principally sandstone and shale, is deformed along closely spaced cataclastic shear planes. This deformation is concentrated at contacts, especially near sill terminations and over laccolith peripheries. The diorite contains plagioclase phenocrysts which are usually sheared in a thin zone adjacent to each contact. Field observations suggest that sills are the forerunners of laccolithic intrusions which form only after magma has spread far enough laterally (greater than about 1 km² in the Henry Mountains) to gain leverage to bend the overburden upward. Further injection of magma results in laccolithic peripheries or terminations with one of three distinct cross-sectional forms: (1) blunt termination of the diorite accompanied by bending and minor faulting of the host rock; (2) termination at a peripheral diorite dike cutting upward across the host rock; or (3) abrupt termination of the diorite against a nearly vertical fault zone.In order to study some of the processes of sill and laccolith intrusion, mechanical models for the driving pressure, physical properties, and flow behavior of the diorite magma are derived and discussed. A static driving pressure (equal to the difference between total magma pressure and lithostatic pressure) of up to 700 bar is estimated. The rheological behavior of the magma in the Henry Mountains is unknown. However, flow behavior is calculated assuming three of the more common models for fluids: Newtonian viscous, pseudoplastic, and Bingham. Suspended crystals probably contributed to the finite strength of the magma (estimated to be at least 10³ dyn/cm² for the Henry Mountains magma) which enables it to support dense zenoliths and also fixes maximum limits on the lengths of sills or dikes. Pressure in magma flowing along tabular intrusions of uniform thickness drops linearly in the flow direction for all three rheological materials. Thickening of tabular intrusions tends to make the pressure drop less rapidly, but pressure drops more rapidly in the tapered region near a termination. Pressure distributions under these and other conditions are derived in order to use them in the models of host rock deformation presented in Part II.     

An analytical model of continental rift fault patterns

Two proposed mechanisms of rift initiation are crustal uplift alone and a combination of crustal uplift and regional horizontal extension. A three-dimensional, thick-plate, elastic analysis has been used to model the crustal stress state and the fault patterns associated with these mechanisms. Small ratios of uplift width to crustal thickness (<10) necessitate the thick-plate approach.For the crustal uplift model, the surface fault pattern is characterized by normal faults trending parallel to the major uplift axis at the uplift center and radial normal faults toward the ends of the major uplift axis. Zones of compressional structures (e.g., strikeslip and thrust faults) may develop at the periphery of the uplift. Superposition of regional horizontal tension with the stresses produced by crustal uplift eliminates the compressive stresses at the uplift periphery producing normal faults parallel to the major uplift axis at the uplift center and normal faults perpendicular to the major uplift axis at the uplift periphery.A comparison of these predicted fault patterns with the faults of the Rhine graben suggests that the combination of crustal uplift and regional horizontal extension contributed to the formation of that rift system. The stresses produced by crustal uplift promoted the formation of the central graben and the fan-shaped troughs toward the ends of the major uplift axes, while superposed regional horizontal tension eliminated the large compressive stresses at the uplift periphery promoting the normal faulting and dike intrusions observed on the Rhine graben flanks.     

Reinforcement analysis and design of mechanical roof bolting systems in horizontally bedded mine roofs

Summary In order to design roof bolting systems safely and economically, it is essential to understand the flexural behaviour of the immediate roof. Based on the strata sequence, the strata in the immediate roof are divided into three types. The flexural behaviour of the three strata types are investigated in terms of the following effects: roof span, horizontal stress, thickness and Young's modulus of the lowest strata.The suspension reinforcement mechanism is analysed using beam-column theory. The equations for the maximum bending stress, deflection and transferred bolt load for the bolted strata are derived. In the analysis, the bolt load is assumed to be a point load and a horizontal stress is uniformly applied to each stratum. The friction reinforcement mechanism is also investigated. The major function of roof bolting in this case is to create frictional resistance by tensioning the roof bolts so that the individual layers are combined into one single thick layer.A computer program and nomographs are developed for the determination of proper bolting pattern and bolt tension. It is hoped that this development can lead to maximum safety with minimum cost for the design of roof bolting systems in underground coal mines.     

A theory of concentric, kink and sinusoidal folding and of monoclinal flexuring of compressible, elastic multilayers: VI. Asymmetric folding and monoclinal kinking

One of the rules of thumb of structural geology is that drag folds, or minor asymmetric folds, reflect the sense of layer-parallel shear during folding of an area. According to this rule, right-lateral, layer-parallel shear is accompanied by clockwise rotation of marker surfaces and left-lateral by counterclockwise rotation. By using this rule of thumb, one is supposed to be able to examine small asymmetric folds in an outcrop and to infer the direction of axes of major folds relative to the position of the outcrop. Such inferences, however, can be misleading. Theoretical and experimental analyses of elastic multilayers show that symmetric sinusoidal folds first develop in the multilayers, if the rheological and dimensional properties favor the development of sinusoidal folds rather than kink folds, and that the folded layers will then behave much as passive markers during layerparallel shear and thus will follow the rule of thumb of drag folding. The analyses indicate, however, that multilayers whose properties favor the development of kink folds can produce monoclinal kink folds with a sense of asymmetry opposite to that predicted by the rule of thumb. Therefore, the asymmetry of folds can be an ambiguous indicator of the sense of shear.The reason for the ambiguity is that asymmetry is a result of two processes that can produce diametrically opposed results. The deformation of foliation surfaces and axial planes in a passive manner is the pure or end-member form of one process. The result of the passive deformation of fold forms is the drag fold in which the steepness of limbs and the tilt of axial planes relative to nonfolded layering are in accord with the rule of thumb.The end-member form of a second process, however, produces the opposite geometric relationships. This process involves yielding and buckling instabilities of layers with contact strength and can result in monoclinal kink bands. Right-lateral, layer-parallel shear stress produces left-lateral monoclinal kink bands and left-lateral shear stress produces right-lateral monoclinal kink bands. Actual folds do not behave as either of these ideal end members, and it is for this reason that the interpretation of the sense of layer-parallel shear stress relative to the asymmetry of folds can be ambiguous.Kink folding of a multilayer with contact strength theoretically is a result of both buckling and yielding instabilities. The theory indicates that inclination of the direction of maximum compression to layering favors either left-lateral or right-lateral kinking, and that one can predict conditions under which monoclinal kink bands will develop in elastic or elastic—plastic layers. Further, the first criterion of kink and sinusoidal folding developed in Part IV remains valid if we replace the contact shear strength with the difference between the shear strength and the initial layer-parallel shear stress.Kink folds theoretically can initiate only in layers inclined at angles less than to the direction of maximum compression. Here φ is the angle of internal friction of contacts. For higher angles of layering, slippage is stable so that the result is layer-parallel slippage rather than kink folding.The theory also provides estimates of locking angles of kink bands relative to the direction of maximum compression. The maximum locking angle between layering in a nondilating kink band and the direction of maximum compression is . The theory indicates that the inclination of the boundaries of kink bands is determined by many factors, including the contact strength between layers, the ratio of principal stresses, the thickening or thinning of layers, that is, the dilitation, within the kink band, and the orientation of the principal stresses relative to layering. If there is no dilitation within the kink band, the minimum inclination of the boundaries of the band is to the direction of maximum compression, or to the direction of nonfolded layers. Here α is the angle between the direction of maximum compression and the nonfolded layers. It is positive if clockwise.Analysis of processes in terminal regions of propagating kink bands in multilayers with frictional contact strength indicates that an essential process is dilitation, which decreases the normal stress, thereby allowing slippage and buckling even though slopes of layers are low there.     

反倾层状岩体斜坡弯曲-拉裂两种失稳破坏之判据探讨

对反倾层状岩体斜坡弯曲-拉裂的失稳破坏判据,已有研究分别基于两种力学模型进行推导,即竖直压杆弹性屈曲稳定和平直梁弯折破坏模型,但对层间错动阻力及挠度产生附加弯矩等因素未加以考虑,不尽合理。在反倾斜坡岩层受力分析基础上,建立考虑了板侧层间错动阻力的下端嵌固、上端自由的斜置等厚弹性悬臂板梁模型,统一地通过瑞利-里兹能量方法,推导了弹性屈曲临界条件和嵌固端弯折破坏临界条件。实例计算及讨论表明,弹性屈曲判据适用于陡立岩层;而中-陡反倾岩层应主要为弯折破坏,但层间的力学性质对弯折临界判据值具有较大影响。     

嵌固段顶部拓宽型抗滑桩计算方法

针对边坡工程中可能出现的普通抗滑桩嵌固段顶端前侧地层抗力不足的问题,提出嵌固段顶部拓宽型抗滑桩结构。基于水平受荷的弹性地基梁模型,推导滑床为多层岩土体的嵌固段顶部拓宽型桩的内力、位移、地层反力计算公式。实例分析表明,当桩体局部拓宽宽度为原桩宽度2倍时,嵌固段顶端地层反力可减小约25%,桩体最大弯矩及剪力减少5%～10%。讨论了拓宽宽度与深度、桩体嵌固深度、桩间距等主要因素对拓宽型桩内力与位移的影响,结果显示：普通桩经嵌固段顶部拓宽后,桩身水平位移与嵌固段顶端前侧地层反力显著降低;拓宽宽度与深度、嵌固段深度的增加均能增强拓宽型抗滑桩的水平承载能力,但当拓宽宽度达到原桩2倍、拓宽深度超过嵌固段深度40%后,继续拓宽对桩体水平承载能力的增加效果不显著。     

A theory of concentric, kink, and sinusoidal folding and of monoclinal flexuring of compressible, elastic multilayers: I. Introduction

Most folds in stratified rock are similar in form to ideal kink, concentric or chevron folds, in which there are discontinuities in slope or curvature of bedding planes. In this respect most folds appear to be closely related to faults, traces of which can be considered to be lines across which there are discontinuities of displacement of layers. Further, the close association of reverse faults and folds or monoclinal flexures seems to indicate that theories of faulting and folding should be closely related.The theory of characteristics is a mathematical tool with which we can obtain insights into processes involving discontinuities. Theoretical characteristic lines are directions across which certain variables might be discontinuous and they are directions along which discontinuities propagate. The theory has been widely applied in plasticity theory and in fluid mechanics and theoretical studies of faulting have suggested that faults are analogous to the lines of discontinuity predicted by plasticity theory. Elasticity and viscosity theories, on which theories of folding have been founded, exclude the existence of characteristic lines in the materials unless the equilibrium equations, rheological properties or strains are nonlinear. However, all folding theories are nonlinear to some extent and the theories can be modified so that they predict lines of discontinuity for some conditions of loading and deformation.Theories of folding will be developed in subsequent papers of this series in order to predict conditions under which characteristic lines can exist in multilayered materials and in order to determine the conditions that must be satisfied across and along the characteristic lines. The theory should help us to recognize lines of apparent discontinuity in natural and experimental folds and study of these lines should provide further understanding of mechanisms of folding.Experimental studies of folding of a wide variety of materials, including alternating layers of rubber and gelatin, modeling clay and grease or graphite, and potter's clay and rubber or cardboard, suggest that the patterns of folding in these materials begin with sinusoidal forms, transform into concentric or kink forms and then into chevron forms as the multilayers are shortened axially. A suitable theory of folding of multilayers should account for these observations.     

Fingered Intrusion of Shallow Saucer-shaped Igneous Sills: Insights from the Jiaojiang Sag, East China Sea

An extensive suite of igneous sills was intruded into the Tertiary sedimentary section of the Jiaojiang sag,East China Sea.This suite has been well imaged offshore through 2D and 3D seismic surveys,showing a close relationship with CO2 content in nearby gas discoveries.A new observational model,which incorporates simple upward propagation,simple horizontal propagation,and transgressive propagation,was proposed to interpret these sill intrusions.In this model,the source magma of the saucer-shaped sills was injected from their lowest points near the center.The transgressive propagation can be interpreted as a combination of the vertical and horizontal propagation.Most shallow sub-volcanic intrusions in the Jiaojiang sag exhibit fingered characteristics,both vertically and horizontally.The vertical fingered propagation produced saucer-shaped sills arranged in the flower style.Along the brims of lower sills could usually be found the upper sills,which are interpreted to have formed simultaneously with or later than the lower feeder sills.In the second type,the chilled paths of the older sills were reutilized by subsequent intrusions.The horizontal fingered propagation formed sheet intrusions that exhibit groove,lobate,tubular,and crevasse splaylike geometry in plan view.In 3D view,the sheet intrusions have still preserved the lower center and higher rim that similar with the sub-rounded saucer-shaped sills.Although fracture propagation may be important,flow inflation was the key mechanism of magma intrusion.Further consideration of the mechanisms underlying sill formation may help explain the fingered characteristics of sill propagation.     

邯邢煤田岩浆岩侵入体的水文地质意义

邯邢煤田煤系及其上覆地层中常有岩浆岩侵入体穿插。通过调查研究发现：侵入体的大小不同，其对地下水影响表现不一；区域上的岩体使地下水运动受阻隔，而穿插于煤系地层中的薄层岩脉则往往形成含、储水空间，成为导水通道；而且岩浆岩体的存在对地下水的化学成分还有一定的影响。因而，认识和分析岩浆岩侵入体的水文地质意义，对于客观分析煤（井）田的水文地质条件，尤其对矿井生产中防治水工作具有积极的意义。     

基于粒子成像测速(PIV)技术的褶皱冲断带砂箱构造物理模拟研究

在前人对褶皱冲断带的研究基础上,为进一步深入分析对比滑脱层数量、强度、深度等对褶皱冲断带的制约,设计了6组砂箱模拟实验,并运用粒子成像测速(PIV,Particle Image Velocimetry)技术的实时监测,计算出各阶段模型剖面上的速度场和涡度场,对褶皱冲断带的运动学过程和变形机制进行详细刻画和定量分析。实验结果表明,滑脱层的强度和深度均制约着褶皱断层的构造演化,滑脱层的强度越小,其上覆地层中的变形传播越远,滑脱层深度越深,对整个构造样式更具有控制作用,变形也就传播得更远。以微玻璃珠组成的滑脱层主要产生前展型逆冲叠瓦式构造,上部推覆体前缘水平位移较快;以硅胶组成的滑脱层上部形成叠瓦式构造,下部形成冲起构造,上、下两部分具有明显的分层变形特征。PIV监测结果显示,当上盘速度骤停,并且前缘涡度值骤降时,断坡形成并发展成断坪-断坡组合构造样式;下一条断层以相同方式在前缘形成,从而使褶皱冲断带向前陆方向扩展。将实验结果与龙门山南段褶皱冲断带进行了对比分析,得到了较好的印证。     

The Bushveld Complex, South Africa: formation of platinum–palladium, chrome- and vanadium-rich layers via hydrodynamic sorting of a mobilized cumulate slurry in a large, relatively slowly cooling, subsiding magma chamber

Platinum-group element (PGE) deposits in the Bushveld Complex and other layered intrusions form when large, incompletely solidified magma chambers undergo central subsidence in response to crustal loading, resulting in slumping of semi-consolidated cumulate slurries to the centres of the intrusions and hydrodynamic unmixing of the slurries to form dense layers enriched in sulfides, oxides, olivine and pyroxene and less dense layers enriched in plagioclase. The most economic PGE, Cr and V reefs form in large, multiple-replenished intrusions because these cool relatively slowly and their central portions subside prior to termination of magmatism and complete cumulate solidification. The depth of emplacement has to be relatively shallow as, otherwise, ductile crust would not be able to flex and collapse. In smaller intrusions, cooling rates are faster, subsidence is less pronounced and, where it occurs, the cumulate may be largely solidified, resulting in insignificant mush mobility and mineral sorting. Layering is thus less pronounced and less regular and continuous and the grades of the reefs are lower, but the reefs can be relatively thicker. An additional factor controlling the PGE, Cr and V prospectivity of intrusions is their location within cratons. Intra-cratonic environments offer more stable emplacement conditions that are more amenable to the formation of large, layered igneous bodies. Furthermore, intrusions sited within cratons are more readily preserved because cratons are underlain by thick, buoyant keels of harzburgite that prevent plate tectonic recycling and destruction of crust.     

阿尔泰可可托海伟晶岩中弧形石英白云母层的成因及意义

石英白云母层时常紧贴伟晶岩侵入体的边界出现且平行边界延伸。但是在新疆阿尔泰可可托海伟晶岩型稀有金属矿区伟晶岩体中石英白云母层出现了三种不同类型的弧形起伏,这些弧形形态仅用矿物的定向生长是难以解释的。弧形石英白云母层具有统一的"背地性"指向(弧形凸起顶端一律朝上)并且越靠近伟晶岩侵入体的顶部弧形凸起越明显,在侵入体侧部边界的石英白云母层不存在弧形凸起形态。这些形态特点与浮力作用下形成的形态具有可比性,暗示浮力与弧形石英白云母层间存在密切的成因联系。石英白云母层与石英钠长石层的间隔出现指示伟晶岩浆中挥发分含量的周期性增加。挥发分含量的周期性增加导致了挥发分不断加入未固结的剩余岩浆中并向伟晶岩体顶部上升,逐步在伟晶岩侵入体的顶部形成了弧形石英白云母层。弧形石英白云母层的大量出现不仅说明伟晶岩侵入体规模较大,也暗示存在有利的挥发分保存环境,对伟晶岩型稀有金属矿产的形成和稀有金属找矿预测起到非常重要的作用。     

初论地幔热柱与成矿——以冀西北金银多金属成矿区为例

作者通过对冀两北金、银多金属矿化集中区成矿规律和物探航磁、重力及遥感信息的综合研究,提出冀西北地区存在一个超越内蒙地轴与燕山褶皱带两个不同历史大地构造单元之上的中生代地幔热柱构造。文中例举了地幔热梓构造标志特征,探讨了地幔热柱构造地质作用（超变质作用、岩浆作用、成矿作用）及其时空演化规律,建立了地幔热柱构造的壳幔成矿模式。     

蓟县下马岭组富菱铁矿地层的基本地质特征

天津蓟县铁岭子村附近新出露的下马岭组下部黑色岩系中富含菱铁矿,本文从野外产出特征、岩石学特征及常量元素特征等3个方面对这一富菱铁矿地层的基本地质特征进行了报道.该剖面地层主要以黑色页岩、粉砂质富铁层/菱铁矿结核层互层产出为特征,夹有少量粉砂岩.部分富铁层由于风化严重,野外露头以褐铁矿层出现.菱铁矿为地层中主要的铁矿物相,可以形成菱铁矿结核,显微镜下具泥晶或微晶结构;也可以与含量相当的石英粉砂一起,构成致密粉砂质富铁层;亦或呈颗粒状零星分布于黑色页岩、粉砂岩中;另外褐铁矿层中亦存在极少量的菱铁矿残余.地层的常量元素特征整体表现为富含SiO2、TFe及有机质,而贫MnO、CaO、MgO、P2O5及S元素,且除风化层位中的铁多呈三价外,其余多呈二价.总有机碳(TOC)含量由高到低依次为菱铁矿结核、粉砂质富铁层、黑色页岩、粉砂岩.TFe与Al2O3含量的相关性图解显示,在富铁地层中,二者呈现出很好的负相关关系,而在正常的黑色页岩和粉砂岩中,二者则呈现一定的正相关关系,表明富铁地层中的铁主要为海洋自身铁的化学沉积,而正常的黑色页岩和粉砂岩中的铁主要源自陆源碎屑.同时新鲜样品中FeO与TOC含量呈现出很好的正相关关系,表明菱铁矿的形成可能与有机质有关.     

岩体结构对岩质滑坡运动过程和堆积特征的影响研究

我国西南高山峡谷地区,常发生高位岩质斜坡失稳,形成碎屑流,造成巨大人员伤亡与经济财产损失。目前存在着许多关于岩质滑坡的研究理论和物理模型,但这些理论与模型都忽略了岩体结构这一属性,然而对岩质滑坡而言,岩体的结构特征不仅控制着斜坡变形失稳模式,同样影响失稳后滑体碎屑化运动过程,甚至最终的危害范围。因此,文章使用离散元数值模拟方法,通过模拟不同结构面强度、结构面密度、结构面方向和岩块强度下岩质滑坡碎屑化运动过程,研究了不同源区岩体结构对岩质滑坡破碎特征、运动形式和运动距离的影响规律及影响机制。研究结果如下:（1）质心运动距离随结构面强度增大而增大,结构面抗拉强度提升10倍,质心运动距离增加3%;（2）结构面密度的增加使得块体破碎率随之增加,但运动距离和分布面积都呈下降趋势;（3）水平向结构面岩体的前缘运动距离和质心运动距离与其他方向结构面工况相比均降低10%左右,分布面积则缩减接近30%,破碎率最大;（4）随着岩块强度增加,破碎率降低,分布面积最终缩减40%,完整块体工况运动距离最终增大15%左右。结果有助于进一步理解岩质滑坡动力学过程,指导山区防灾减灾工作。     

四川叠合盆地西部中北段深层-超深层海相大型气田形成条件分析

绵阳-长宁拉张槽的发现,大大地提升了四川叠合盆地西部深层-超深层海相层系的油气勘探前景。本文利用钻井、地震和野外露头资料和前人研究成果系统分析川西深层-超深层油气地质条件和目前发现的雷口坡组气藏的成藏过程。结果表明,四川叠合盆地西部深层-超深层海相层系有以下寒武统为主的多源供烃系统,多时代(震旦系灯影组白云岩,二叠系白云岩和礁滩体,三叠系雷口坡组微生物岩和颗粒白云岩等)储集层叠合,致密碳酸盐岩、巨厚陆相泥质岩和中下三叠统膏盐岩多级封盖,以断裂(及不整合面)和优质储层构成的立体输导网络等,使得深层-超深层海相层系具备形成大气田的基本条件,是原生气藏和次生气藏共存的天然气富集区。近年来,川西发现的中三叠统雷口坡组四段气藏,其可能成藏过程为生烃中心(下寒武统烃源岩等)→生气中心(灯影组和二叠系古油藏等)→储气中心(灯影组和二叠系古气藏等)→保气中心(雷口坡组次生气藏)。这揭示其深层-超深层既可能还存在着符合四中心耦合成藏的原生气藏,也可能发育着次生气藏,极有可能发现新的大气田。     

A fossil frost mound of Late Dryas age in middle Jutland (Denmark)

Three to four km southwest of Egtved, in middle Jutland, diggings for a gas pipeline cut through a form which is believed to be a fossil frost mound. The horizontal outline of the form is that of a rounded silty body with a diameter of about 45 m. It is surrounded by layered eolian sand of which the layers are bent upwards into a vertical position close to the silty body. A small bulge of silty material is present on top of the neighbouring sand. The mechanism for the formation of the form is thought to have much in common with that of the hydrostatic system pingo of Mackay. It cannot be determined whether the mound was annual or perennial, but the presence of silty sediment in the central part shows that liquified sediment moved upward to fill the present form. By means of lithostratigraphy and pollen analysis, the development and decay of the mound were dated to Late Dryas time. It is suggested that similar features may be present in other parts of Scandinavia outside the area glaciated during the Late Dryas.     

Interpretation of ambiguous reflection data by imaging processes: An example profile crossing steep submarine valley at the sea bottom

The determination of the geometry of a vertical structure is one of the most important problems in the conventional stacking process used as an imaging process. The horizontal layers in depths of the earth are easily displayed in the seismic time section, but the dipping and folded layers are not correctly displayed in the reflection data. The present study addresses the same problem for the data collected from a profile of a steep marine valley and that of an offshore extension of the Ganos fault at the westernmost part of the Tekirdağ basin, Marmara Sea, NW Turkey. In the previous studies, the fault was interpreted as a low-angle reverse fault juxtaposing between the Plio-Quaternary and the Miocene strata in the time migration section. However, the results of the extensive analyses in this study show that the close position of a newly interpreted Miocene anticline to the synformal structure of the sea bottom makes the data ambiguous, whereas the subvertical fault and the other events coming away from the fault plane causes complexity. To eliminate misinterpretation due to ambiguity and complexity as in the previous analysis, the data are reinterpreted by pre-stack Kirchhoff depth migration in addition to the conventional stacking process. The new interpretation is checked through the synthetics data created from the model having appropriate parameters of the data used. The results have shown the existence of an anticline that is cored by the Miocene strata and overlain by the Plio-Quaternary strata 200 m below the sea bottom. The Ganos fault is imaged as disturbing all the layers down the way and as having a listric geometry and steeper dip angle (75° N) at shallow depths but decreasing downward. This study examples the importance of considering the problems of the complex geometry and choosing appropriate imaging technique for analyzing seismic reflection data collected over an area with known vertical fault and related tectonic complexity.