New insights into the origin and migration of brines in deep Devonian aquifers, Alberta, Canada

Analysis of hydraulic heads and chemical compositions of Devonian formation waters in the west central part of the Alberta Basin, Canada, characterizes the origin of formation waters and migration of brines. The Devonian succession in the study area lies 2000–5000 m below the ground surface, and has an approximate total thickness of 1000 m and an average slope of 15 m/km. Four Devonian aquifers are present in the study area, which form two aquifer systems [i.e., a Middle–Upper Devonian aquifer system (MUDAS) consisting of the Elk Point and Woodbend–Beaverhill Lake aquifers, and an Upper Devonian aquifer system (UDAS) consisting of the Winterburn and Wabamun aquifers]. The Ireton is an effective aquitard between these two systems in the eastern parts of the study area. The entire Devonian succession is confined below by efficient aquitards of the underlying Cambrian shales and/or the Precambrian basement, and above by overlying Carboniferous shales of the Exshaw and Lower Banff Formations.The formation water chemistry shows that the Devonian succession contains two distinct brine types: a ‘heavy brine,’ located updip, defined approximately by TDS >200 g/l, and a ‘light brine’ with TDS <200 g/l. Hydraulic head distributions suggest that, presently, the ‘light brine’ attempts to flow updip, thereby pushing the ‘heavy brine’ ahead. The interface between the two brines is lobate and forms large-scale tongues that are due to channeled flow along high-permeability pathways. Geological and hydrogeochemical data suggest that the following processes determined the present composition of the ‘light’ and ‘heavy’ brines: original seawater, evaporation beyond gypsum but below halite saturation, dolomitization, clay dehydration, gypsum dewatering, thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR), and halite dissolution. The influx of meteoric (from the south) and metamorphic (from the west) waters can be recognized only in the ‘light brine.’ Albitization can be unequivocally identified only in the ‘heavy brine.’ The ‘heavy brine’ may be residual Middle Devonian evaporitic brine from the Williston Basin or the Elk Point Basin, or it may have originated from partial dissolution of thick, laterally extensive Middle Devonian evaporite deposits to the east of the study area. The ‘light brine’ most probably originated from dilution of ‘heavy brine’ in post-Laramide times.     

深部咸水层二氧化碳封存的干化效应及选址启示

将二氧化碳注入到深部咸水层中,形成复杂的多组分、多相流系统。二氧化碳在压力梯度、浓度差作用下不断扩散,逐步带走盐溶液中的水分,导致各组分的相态变化,盐结晶析出,阻塞了咸水层孔隙通道,从而降低了二氧化碳的注入效率,研究该干化效应的影响因素并为工程选址提供依据具有重要意义。采用二维径向模型建立多相流体的流动方程,并结合相对渗透率和毛细压力方程探讨二氧化碳注入速率、咸水层含盐量、毛细压力的特征参数对干化效应的影响,干化效应可用固体饱和度值进行定量描述。结果表明：二氧化碳运移分3个区域：干涸区、气液相混合区及液相咸水区,干化效应主要发生在井周的干涸区。在毛细作用下固体饱和度随注入速率的减小而增大,随咸水层含盐量增大而增大,随毛细作用增大而增大。因此,提高二氧化碳的注入速率,向咸水层中注水稀释含盐量或选择粒径较大的均质咸水层减小毛细作用,均可降低盐结晶对孔隙通道的阻塞,提高注入效率。     

Geochemical effects of CO2 sequestration in sandstones under simulated in situ conditions of deep saline aquifers

The geochemical effects of brine and supercritical CO₂ (SCCO₂) on reservoir rocks from deep (1500–2000 m) saline aquifers were examined via experimental simulation at in situ conditions. Dry sandstone samples were mounted in a triaxial cell and autoclave system, evacuated, and saturated with 1 M NaCl solution. The brine-rock system was allowed to react at 30 MPa confining pressure, 15 MPa pore fluid pressure, and 60 °C while SCCO₂ was injected at a pressure gradient of 1–2 MPa. The experiment was conducted for a period of 1496 h, during which fluids were periodically sampled and analyzed. The pH measured in partially degassed fluid samples at 25 °C decreased from a starting value of 7.0–4.3 (9 days) and finally 5.1 after saturation with SCCO₂.     

A stochastic inversion workflow for monitoring the distribution of CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> injected into deep saline aquifers

We present a two-step stochastic inversion approach for monitoring the distribution of CO₂ injected into deep saline aquifers for the typical scenario of one single injection well and a database comprising a common suite of well logs as well as time-lapse vertical seismic profiling (VSP) data. In the first step, we compute several sets of stochastic models of the elastic properties using conventional sequential Gaussian co-simulations (SGCS) representing the considered reservoir before CO₂ injection. All realizations within a set of models are then iteratively combined using a modified gradual deformation algorithm aiming at reducing the mismatch between the observed and simulated VSP data. In the second step, these optimal static models then serve as input for a history matching approach using the same modified gradual deformation algorithm for minimizing the mismatch between the observed and simulated VSP data following the injection of CO₂. At each gradual deformation step, the injection and migration of CO₂ is simulated and the corresponding seismic traces are computed and compared with the observed ones. The proposed stochastic inversion approach has been tested for a realistic, and arguably particularly challenging, synthetic case study mimicking the geological environment of a potential CO₂ injection site in the Cambrian-Ordivician sedimentary sequence of the St. Lawrence platform in Southern Québec. The results demonstrate that the proposed two-step reservoir characterization approach is capable of adequately resolving and monitoring the distribution of the injected CO₂. This finds its expression in optimized models of P- and S-wave velocities, density, and porosity, which, compared to conventional stochastic reservoir models, exhibit a significantly improved structural similarity with regard to the corresponding reference models. The proposed approach is therefore expected to allow for an optimal injection forecast by using a quantitative assimilation of all available data from the appraisal stage of a CO₂ injection site.     

黑龙江林甸地区深部咸水层CO2地质储存条件与潜力评估

CO₂地质储存是减少碳排放、缓解温室效应的有效措施。经地热勘探与综合研究,黑龙江林甸地区埋藏深度940～2062 m的中生代白垩系泉头组三四段、青山口组和姚家组砂岩层状地层中蕴含丰富的咸水,溶解性总固体可达2000～9000 mg/L,孔隙发育较好,水流速缓慢,其上盖层以白垩系嫩江组、四方台组、明水组的层状泥质岩为主,厚度为800～1300 m,未被主要断裂带穿透,封闭良好,决定了其可以作为储存CO₂的良好地质储体。同时,大庆市紧邻林甸地区,化工企业众多,碳源集中且充足,规模大,距离短,为研究区的CO₂地质储存提供了有利条件。因林甸地区油气资源匮乏,缺少石油井,本次工作首次利用地热勘探井,根据CO₂地质储存技术机理,采用国际权威潜力评估公式,开展了深部咸水层CO₂地质储存的潜力评估。结果表明,其深部咸水层CO₂理论储存量为478.91×108 t,有效储存量为11.49×108 t,储存潜力较大,未来可作为大庆、齐齐哈尔等邻近城市减碳的地质储存场所。此项工作的开展,为林甸地区下一步实施CO₂地质储存适宜性评价、目标靶区筛选和场地选址及示范工程建设提供了技术支撑。     

Characterization of microbial processes in deep aquifers of the Fennoscandian Shield

Micro-organisms must be included in any hydrogeochemical modelling efforts in the ongoing Swedish programme to characterize potential sites for the geological disposal of spent nuclear fuel. This paper presents the development and testing of several methods for estimating the total numbers of micro-organism groups and amounts of their biomass in groundwater, their diversity, and the rates of microbial processes. The enumeration and cultivation methods were tested and evaluated on groundwater from boreholes at 450 m depth in the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory (HRL), Sweden, and from two potential sites for a final repository of spent nuclear fuel, Forsmark and Laxemar. The reproducibility of the methods between parallel samples and over time was investigated and found to be excellent. Nitrate-, iron-, manganese- and sulphate-reducing bacteria and acetogens and methanogens were found in numbers up to approximately 87,000 cells L⁻¹ groundwater from the studied sites. A methodology that analysed microbial process rates was developed and tested under open and closed controlled in situ conditions in a circulation system situated 447 m underground in the MICROBE laboratory at the Äspö HRL. The sulphide and acetate production rates were determined to be 0.08 and 0.14 mg L⁻¹ day⁻¹, respectively. The numbers of sulphide- and acetate-producing micro-organisms increased concomitantly in the analysed circulating groundwater. Flushing the sampled circulation aquifer created an artefact, as it lowered the sulphide concentration. Microbial and inorganic processes involved in sulphur transformations are summarized in a conceptual model, based on the observations and results presented here. The model outlines how dissolved sulphide may react with Fe(III) and Fe(II) to form solid phases of iron sulphide and pyrite. Sulphide will, consequently, continuously be removed from the aqeous phase via these reactions, at a rate approximately equalling the rate of production by microbial sulphate reduction.     

规模化深部咸水含水层CO2地质储存选址方法研究

本文依据中国沉积盆地CO2地质储存潜力评价结果,认为深部咸水含水层是实现规模化CO2地质储存的主体,进而对适宜CO2地质储存的深部咸水含水层属性进行了界定。提出了深部咸水含水层CO2地质储存选址原则,合理划分了选址工作阶段。建立了选址技术指标、安全性评价指标、经济适宜性和地面地质-社会环境选址指标4个指标层,60余个指标的选址指标体系,提出了基于层次分析(AHP)的多因子排序选址评价方法。本文的研究成果对中国深部咸水含水层CO2地质储存场地选址具有一定的指导意义。     

Numerical simulation of CO2 disposal by mineral trapping in deep aquifers

Carbon dioxide disposal into deep aquifers is a potential means whereby atmospheric emissions of greenhouse gases may be reduced. However, our knowledge of the geohydrology, geochemistry, geophysics, and geomechanics of CO₂ disposal must be refined if this technology is to be implemented safely, efficiently, and predictably. As a prelude to a fully coupled treatment of physical and chemical effects of CO₂ injection, the authors have analyzed the impact of CO₂ immobilization through carbonate mineral precipitation. Batch reaction modeling of the geochemical evolution of 3 different aquifer mineral compositions in the presence of CO₂ at high pressure were performed. The modeling considered the following important factors affecting CO₂ sequestration: (1) the kinetics of chemical interactions between the host rock minerals and the aqueous phase, (2) CO₂ solubility dependence on pressure, temperature and salinity of the system, and (3) redox processes that could be important in deep subsurface environments. The geochemical evolution under CO₂ injection conditions was evaluated. In addition, changes in porosity were monitored during the simulations. Results indicate that CO₂ sequestration by matrix minerals varies considerably with rock type. Under favorable conditions the amount of CO₂ that may be sequestered by precipitation of secondary carbonates is comparable with and can be larger than the effect of CO₂ dissolution in pore waters. The precipitation of ankerite and siderite is sensitive to the rate of reduction of Fe(III) mineral precursors such as goethite or glauconite. The accumulation of carbonates in the rock matrix leads to a considerable decrease in porosity. This in turn adversely affects permeability and fluid flow in the aquifer. The numerical experiments described here provide useful insight into sequestration mechanisms, and their controlling geochemical conditions and parameters.     

深部咸水层CO2地质储存适宜性评价方法研究

随着温室效应的加剧,CO₂地质储存已成为减缓全球气候变暖的有效方法之一. 可用于CO₂ 地下储存的场地主要有枯竭的油气田、深部咸水层和深部不可开采的煤层等,我国深部咸水层CO₂地质储存潜力占总潜力的98%以上. 在全面分析CO₂ 地质储存适宜性影响因素的基础上,建立了适宜于沉积盆地深部咸水层CO₂ 地质储存的适宜性评价体系,主要包括地质安全性、储存规模、社会环境风险和经济适宜性4大指标层,共计28个评价指标,评价方法以层次分析法及指标叠加法为主. 以西宁盆地为研究实例,通过基于排除法的地质条件综合分析与层次分析法的定量评价相互验证,表明该指标体系和评价方法具有广泛的应用价值. 结果表明,西宁盆地一级构造单元中双树坳陷最适宜CO₂地质储存,可作为CO₂地质储存的优先选区.     

A synthetic approach integrating surface and subsurface data for prospecting deep aquifers: the Southeast Tunisia

The Southeast Tunisia has remarkable thermal springs that have been used for bathing since many years. Currently, studies are being carried out to investigate the possible use of the hot water for heating buildings and for greenhouses. Springs with discharge temperatures between 26.8 and 58°C exist in the area. The flow rates range between 7 and 66 l/s with total dissolved solids (TDS) varying between 2,020 and 4,030 mg/l. Both geological–hydrogeological setting and the similarity in chemical characteristics between the Zarat spring and nearby water wells suggest that the hot water from this spring may be related to the Senonian aquifer. However, the hydrogeothermal approach shows that the depth of the reservoir that supplies the Zarat spring is greater than that of the Senonian aquifer. In fact, geothermometry approach indicates that fluids emerging from the Lower Cretaceous sandstones reach temperatures of approximately 78°C at depth, while the fluid temperature from the nearby water wells is 32°C. Through the integration of various types of data we found that the thermal water of Southeast Tunisia is of meteoric origin. This water infiltrates deeply into the Lower Cretaceous sandstones and reaches a high temperature before rising upwards to supply the hot springs and well discharge zones. It appears that the upward movement of hot water from the deep aquifers to shallow ones is probably due to the abundant fractures in the area.     

Deep resistivity sounding studies for probing deep fresh aquifers in the coastal area of Orissa, India

Exploration and exploitation of groundwater in sedimentary areas are reasonably simple. However, the problem of salinity in coastal areas makes the job very difficult, especially when the freshwater aquifers are not extensive and are entrapped between saline aquifers. States along the eastern coast of India, particularly Orissa with respect to the Mahanadi basin, have acute problems with groundwater salinity. It has been possible to locate horizons of fresh groundwater entrapped between deep saline aquifers in the southwestern part of Mahanadi delta, with the help of deep resistivity soundings along the Delang-Puri profile. This finding has been validated through boreholes and checked with electrical logs of this region. Three freshwater aquifers have been detected: one at shallow depth between 20 and 60?m, the second in the depth range of 90??60?m, and the third in the fractured/weathered basement. The second freshwater aquifer has the most potential; it has a thickness range of 20??0?m and it could be exploited to overcome problematic salinity issues. In general, the depth to basement is variable and it increases seaward.     

Recovery scenarios for deep over-exploited aquifers with limited recharge: methodology and application to an aquifer in Belgium

Recharge of deep-seated aquifers must be provided through leakage from overlying geological formations and can be very limited. Although hydraulic characteristics of these aquifers may be favorable for extensive exploitation, the renewability of the groundwater resource may be very restricted and only significant on long time scales. Over-exploitation of such aquifers leads to steadily declining piezometric levels and water balancing and steady state conditions are not to be expected on the short term. Recovery of such systems is very difficult, also because of the socio-economic dependencies of the water resource and the long time it requires to replenish the system. Management plans for restoration should be based on the transient hydrodynamical behaviour. A recovery plan should be developed based on results of a groundwater flow model. In a first step must be simulated how long it will take for the aquifer system to fully recover by natural recharge. As this will most often be a very long time it can be cancelled out as a realistic scenario. An alternative objective is to be formulated which could be achieved in the near future on a time scale of years or decades. Using model simulations, reduction schemes of exploitation rates shall be quantified that will allow to reach these defined goals, such as raising piezometric levels above the top of the aquifer itself or above the top of the overlying geological unit. The methodology is illustrated with an example of a deep hard rock aquifer in Belgium where piezometric levels have dropped below the top. The objective here was to raise the levels again above the top within the next 50 years. However, this is not accomplished by balancing aquifer recharge and discharge, but is reached by a lateral redistribution of the water over the aquifer extent. A full recovery of this aquifer would require at least a century with only a very limited amount of exploitation.     

咸水层CO2地质封存地下利用空间评估方法研究

咸水层CO2地质封存技术是我国实现碳中和目标的重要支撑技术,也是一项深部地下空间开发利用技术。咸水层CO2地质封存工程利用的深部地下空间,需要在确定CO2羽流、扰动边界和经济因素“三级边界”的基础上进行综合评估。以我国唯一的深部咸水层CO2地质封存项目——国家能源集团鄂尔多斯碳捕集与封存(Carbon Capture and Storage, CCS)示范工程为实例,基于封存场地储层CO2羽流监测以及扰动边界的推断预测结果综合评估,认为示范工程平面上4个1'×1'经纬度范围可作为地下利用空间平面边界,垂向上以纸坊组顶界(深度约958 m)为地下封存体顶部边界,以深度2 800 m为底板封隔层底界。提出的咸水层CO2地质封存地下利用空间评估方法,能够为未来封存工程地下利用空间审批与监管提供一定参考,但也需要进一步结合已有法律法规及规模化封存工程实践完善提升。     

56m深TRD工法搅拌墙在深厚承压含水层中的成墙试验研究

上海国际金融中心项目基坑面积约为48 860m2,开挖深度为26.5²7.9m,周边环境复杂。为控制抽降承压水对周边环境的影响,经方案比选,基坑周边设置厚700mm、深56m等厚度水泥土搅拌墙(TRD)作为承压水悬挂隔水帷幕。在上海地区施工如此深TRD墙体尚属首例,为此现场开展了试成墙试验,试成墙监测表明,墙身在深厚承压含水层中水泥土强度达到0.8427.9m,周边环境复杂。为控制抽降承压水对周边环境的影响,经方案比选,基坑周边设置厚700mm、深56m等厚度水泥土搅拌墙(TRD)作为承压水悬挂隔水帷幕。在上海地区施工如此深TRD墙体尚属首例,为此现场开展了试成墙试验,试成墙监测表明,墙身在深厚承压含水层中水泥土强度达到0.84¹.38 MPa。室内渗透性试验表明,渗透系数由10-3cm/s提高到10-7cm/s,满足隔水帷幕设计要求;墙体施工期间,地表最大沉降约8mm,主要影响范围约5m;土体侧向位移主要产生在距离墙体5m的范围内,TRD墙体施工对周边环境影响很小。试验墙体的顺利实施为后续正式墙体的施工提供了依据,也为类似工程提供了重要参考。     

Evidence and mechanisms for Appalachian Basin brine migration into shallow aquifers in NE Pennsylvania,USA

Multiple geographic information system (GIS) datasets, including joint orientations from nine bedrock outcrops, inferred faults, topographic lineaments, geophysical data (e.g. regional gravity, magnetic and stress field), 290 pre-gas-drilling groundwater samples (Cl–Br data) and Appalachian Basin brine (ABB) Cl–Br data, have been integrated to assess pre-gas-drilling salinization sources throughout Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania (USA), a focus area of Marcellus Shale gas development. ABB has migrated naturally and preferentially to shallow aquifers along an inferred normal fault and certain topographic lineaments generally trending NNE–SSW, sub-parallel with the maximum regional horizontal compressive stress field (orientated NE–SW). Gravity and magnetic data provide supporting evidence for the inferred faults and for structural control of the topographic lineaments with dominant ABB shallow groundwater signatures. Significant permeability at depth, imparted by the geologic structures and their orientation to the regional stress field, likely facilitates vertical migration of ABB fluids from depth. ABB is known to currently exist within Ordovician through Devonian stratigraphic units, but likely originates from Upper Silurian strata, suggesting significant migration through geologic time, both vertically and laterally. The natural presence of ABB-impacted shallow groundwater has important implications for differentiating gas-drilling-derived brine contamination, in addition to exposing potential vertical migration pathways for gas-drilling impacts.     

Insights into oil cracking based on laboratory experiments

The objectives of this pyrolysis investigation were to determine changes in (1) oil composition, (2) gas composition and (3) gas carbon isotope ratios and to compare these results with hydrocarbons in reservoirs. Laboratory cracking of a saturate-rich Devonian oil by confined, dry pyrolysis was performed at T=350–450 °C, P=650 bars and times ranging from 24 h to 33 days. Increasing thermal stress results in the C₁₅₊ hydrocarbon fraction cracking to form C_6–14 and C_1–5 hydrocarbons and pyrobitumen. The C_6–14 fraction continues to crack to C_1–5 gases plus pyrobitumen at higher temperatures and prolonged heating time and the δ ¹³C_ethane–δ¹³C_propane difference becomes greater as oil cracking progresses. There is considerable overlap in product generation and product cracking. Oil cracking products accumulate either because the rate of generation of any product is greater than the rate of removal by cracking of that product or because the product is a stable end member under the experimental conditions. Oil cracking products decrease when the amount of product generated from a reactant is less than the amount of product cracked. If pyrolysis gas compositions are representative of gases generated from oil cracking in nature, then understanding the processes that alter natural gas composition is critical.     

鄂尔多斯深部咸水层CO_2地质封存效果评价

中国首个陆上咸水层CO_2地质封存全流程示范项目于2010年正式实施。为更加清晰、准确地了解注入场地储层的注入性能和注入封存过程中可能遇到的潜在问题,基于场地储层结构和注入监测数据,采用储层多相流模拟软件TOUGH2-MP/ECO_2N对鄂尔多斯105 t/a CO_2注入1 620 m以深的特低渗砂岩咸水含水层进行数值模拟,对储层的压力积聚和CO_2羽体扩散的动态演化以及储层封存量进行评估。结果表明,所建立的模型比较准确地反映了实际注入过程和注入效果。3a注入引起的最大压力抬升小于15 MPa,CO_2在含水层中总体呈均匀扩散,CO_2注入地下3a和53a后,羽体在刘家沟储层中的横向迁移距离分别为550 m和700 m左右。在目前的统注方案下,CO_2主要封存层位在储层上部的刘家沟组(埋深为1 690~1 699 m),其吸气量占整个储层封存量的80%以上,储层吸气能力具有由浅到深变差的特征。53a模拟期内,进入泥岩盖层的CO_2总量不及注入总量的0.05%。     

Hydrogeological and mixing process of waters in deep aquifers in arid regions: south east Tunisia

This study addresses the hydrogeochemistry of thermal and cold waters from south east Tunisia. Temperature intervals are 38.5–68 °C and 22–27.8 °C for thermal water and cold water, respectively. Three distinct hydrogeological systems supply water either for irrigation or for drinking; they are: (1) the Continental Intercalaire geothermal aquifer (CI), (2) the Turonian aquifer and (3) the Senonian aquifer. A synthetic study including hydrochemical, hydrogeological and geothermal approaches have been applied in order to evaluate the inter-aquifers water transfer in south east of Tunisia. By using silica geothermometers and saturation indices for different solid phases, estimated thermal reservoir temperature varies between 52 and 87 °C and between 75 and 110 °C, respectively. Based on chemical and thermal data, mixing, which occurs between the ascending deep geothermal water and shallow cold water, is about 57 % cold water.     

Direct-push multilevel sampling system for unconsolidated aquifers

An economical multilevel groundwater monitoring system has been developed that can be rapidly installed with a direct-push machine, yet is suitable for sampling across large permeability contrasts. This sealed multiport sampling (SMPS) system consists of up to five lengths of PVC tubing (12 mm OD), each with a screen at a specific depth created by drilling 2.5-mm holes. Above and below each screen, round elastomer pieces, with peripheral holes (to clip in the sampling tubes) and a central hole (to hold a discontinuous piece of central tubing at the height of the screen), are emplaced. Cement-bentonite grout is injected via a tremie tube inserted through the discontinuous centre tube into each interval between the sampling screens. The elastomer pieces and central tube prevent grout from reaching the screened interval. A textile wrapped around the system holds the arrangement in place and at the same time serves to filter the groundwater at the level of the sampling screens. The SMPS system was tested at a tetrachloroethene (PCE) contaminated site. The seals effectively separated the sampling intervals even in heterogeneous formations. Furthermore, concentration profiles agreed well with a reference system. The system should be suitable for a wide range of hydrogeological conditions.