Archean greenstone-tonalite duality: Thermochemical mantle convection models or plate tectonics in the early Earth global dynamics?

Mantle convection and plate tectonics are one system, because oceanic plates are cold upper thermal boundary layers of the convection cells. As a corollary, Phanerozoic-style of plate tectonics or more likely a different version of it (i.e. a larger number of slowly moving plates, or similar number of faster plates) is expected to have operated in the hotter, vigorously convecting early Earth. Despite the recent advances in understanding the origin of Archean greenstone–granitoid terranes, the question regarding the operation of plate tectonics in the early Earth remains still controversial. Numerical model outputs for the Archean Earth range from predominantly shallow to flat subduction between 4.0 and 2.5 Ga and well-established steep subduction since 2.5 Ga [Abbott, D., Drury, R., Smith, W.H.F., 1994. Flat to steep transition in subduction style. Geology 22, 937–940], to no plate tectonics but rather foundering of 1000 km sectors of basaltic crust, then “resurfaced” by upper asthenospheric mantle basaltic melts that generate the observed duality of basalts and tonalities [van Thienen, P., van den Berg, A.P., Vlaar, N.J., 2004a. Production and recycling of oceanic crust in the early earth. Tectonophysics 386, 41–65; van Thienen, P., Van den Berg, A.P., Vlaar, N.J., 2004b. On the formation of continental silicic melts in thermochemical mantle convection models: implications for early Earth. Tectonophysics 394, 111–124]. These model outputs can be tested against the geological record. Greenstone belt volcanics are composites of komatiite–basalt plateau sequences erupted from deep mantle plumes and bimodal basalt–dacite sequences having the geochemical signatures of convergent margins; i.e. horizontally imbricated plateau and island arc crust. Greenstone belts from 3.8 to 2.5 Ga include volcanic types reported from Cenozoic convergent margins including: boninites; arc picrites; and the association of adakites–Mg andesites- and Nb-enriched basalts.Archean cratons were intruded by voluminous norites from the Neoarchean through Proterozoic; norites are accounted for by melting of subduction metasomatized Archean continental lithospheric mantle (CLM). Deep CLM defines Archean cratons; it extends to  350 km, includes the diamond facies, and xenoliths signify a composition of the buoyant, refractory, residue of plume melting, a natural consequence of imbricated plateau-arc crust. Voluminous tonalites of Archean greenstone–granitoid terranes show a secular trend of increasing Mg#, Cr, Ni consistent with slab melts hybridizing with thicker mantle wedge as subduction angle steepens. Strike-slip faults of 1000 km scale; diachronous accretion of distinct tectonostratigraphic terranes; and broad Cordilleran-type orogens featuring multiple sutures, and oceanward migration of arcs, in the Archean Superior and Yilgarn cratons, are in common with the Altaid and Phanerozoic Cordilleran orogens. There is increasing geological evidence of the supercontinent cycle operating back to  2.7 Ga: Kenorland or Ur  2.7–2.4 Ga; Columbia  1.6–1.4 Ga; Rodinia  1100–750 Ma; and Pangea  230 Ma. High-resolution seismic reflection profiling of Archean terranes reveals a prevalence of low angle structures, and evidence for paleo-subduction zones. Collectively, the geological–geochemical–seismic records endorse the operation of plate tectonics since the early Archean.     

Modelling the heat pulses generated on a fault plane during coseismic slip: Inferences from the pseudotachylites of the Copanello cliffs (Calabria, Italy)

A pseudotachylite vein network crosscutting late Hercynian foliated tonalites can be observed along the Copanello cliffs (Calabria, Southern Italy). Pseudotachylites formed during the Oligocene–Miocene at intermediate crustal levels (ca. 10 km). They show variable thickness ranging from few mm up to 10 cm, as observed in injection veins branching from the fault plane. Microscopic observations indicate that pseudotachylite matrix mainly consists of plagioclase (An₄₆–An₅₈) and biotite microlites. Rounded clasts of quartz, plagioclase or of plagioclase–quartz lithic fragments are disseminated in the matrix. Intergranular, flow and spherulitic textures are commonly observed. Microstructural features are consistent with rapid crystallisation from melt. EDS analyses of rare and tiny glass veins indicated a trachyandesite or An₅₀ plagioclase melt composition.The conditions for pseudotachylite formation were reproduced by an analytical model taking into account the heat released by friction along a horizontal fault plane during a seismic event. The model is based on a three-stage rupture history that includes nucleation, propagation and stopping. In addition, by means of a numerical approach, the model reproduces cooling that follows the stopping stage.According to previous studies, the thermal perturbation induced by fault displacement is very intense. In fact, temperatures exceeding the tonalite and even An₅₀ plagioclase liquidus (1470 °C) are reproduced by small amount of slip (≤ 6 cm) in suprahydrostatic regime. On the other hand, the thermal perturbation is strongly localised and of short duration. Peak temperatures abruptly decrease at a short distance from the fault plane (typically in few millimetres). In these conditions a thin film of melt can be produced. Therefore, the presence of cm-scale pseudotachylite veins can be only explained assuming an efficient and fast melt migration towards dilatant sites, such as pull-apart structures and injections veins. Results of the model may be useful to predict the thermal disturbance produced by earthquakes of low intensity.     

柴达木盆地北缘西端埃达克质花岗岩的发现及地质意义

盐场北山英云闪长岩位于柴达木盆地北缘西端青海冷湖地区。岩体Si2O56%(62.86%~64.83%),A12O315%,MgO3%(含量为1.73%~1.96%),Mg#=33.4~37.0,小于50。Sr400×10-6(平均为409×10-6),Y18×10-6(Y=3.09×10-6~6.6×10-6),Yb1.9×10-6(Yb=0.4×10-6~0.58×10-6),具有埃达克岩地球化学特征;Na2O/K2O=2.39~2.73,富Na贫K,Eu、Sr正异常(δEu=1.22~1.44),属O型埃达克岩。岩体富集大离子亲石元素(K、Rb、Sr、Ba),亏损高场强元素(Nb、Ta、P),具火山弧型花岗岩特征。LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb测年结果表明,岩体形成于263±2 Ma。结合区域地质背景和岩石地球化学特征,认为柴达木盆地北缘西端埃达克质花岗岩可能产于与俯冲有关的活动大陆边缘火山弧环境,是俯冲板片直接熔融的产物。进而揭示中二叠世末柴达木盆地北缘地区处于洋陆俯冲的构造演化阶段。     

Contrasting tonalite genesis in the Lyngen magmatic complex, north Norwegian Caledonides

The Lyngen gabbro (LG), defining the major part of the Lyngen magmatic complex, is characterised by layered gabbros of N-MORB affinity (western suite) and layered gabbronorites, quartz-bearing gabbros and diorites/quartz-diorites of IAT (island-arc tholeiite) to boninitic affinity (eastern suite). The boundary between the eastern and western suites is generally defined by a large-scale ductile shear zone of suboceanic origin, the Rypdalen shear zone (RSZ). Tonalites occur within the RSZ and in the eastern suite of the LG. Variations in field occurrence and chemical composition of the tonalites suggest that they represent two petrologically different groups. Tonalite intrusion (the Vakkas pluton) up to 5 km² large occur in the eastern suite of the LG, and are characterised by high Y contents (average 26 ppm) and high K₂O/Rb ratios (average 0.062) compared to tonalites on the RSZ. The Vakkas pluton has lightly concave REE (rare earth element) patterns with negative Eu-anomalies, and positive _ND-values (+3.7 to +3.9). Geochemical modelling based on the REE and field evidence suggests that these tonalites may have formed by fractional crystallization from a boninitic parental magma. Tonalites related to the RSZ form irregular veins and dikes that net vein the shear zone. They are characterised by low Y contents (average 6 ppm), low K₂O/Rb ratios (average 0.025), and highly variable contents of Na₂O, K₂O, Sr and Ba, compared to the Vakkas pluton. Tonalites related to the RSZ show substantial variation in the content of the LREEs. They possess low abundances of the HREEs, and absence of, or slightly positive Eu-anomalies. The tonalites have highly variable _ND-values (−0.6 to −9.4), probably resulting from enrichment of Nd from an external source. Geochemical modelling suggests that the LREE-rich tonalites formed by H₂O-rich partial melting of differentiated products from the eastern suite of the LG. The presence of B in the fluid phase is suggested by the presence of tourmaline-bearing tonalite pegmatites. Thus, the anatectic tonalites of this group could have been formed by water-excess melting of a variety of gabbroic cumulates of the LG. In the LG, LREE-depleted tonalites (_ND-values +5.1) also occur, and these are best explained in terms of partial melting of gabbroic cumulates from the transition zone between the eastern and the western suites of the LG.     

新疆拉依克勒克隐伏斑岩矿床的发现、Re-Os同位素定年及地质意义

琼河坝是新疆环准噶尔斑岩成矿带中一个重要矿集区,在地表已发现数个斑岩型铜矿,但由于戈壁滩等第四系覆盖,给以地表矿化线索为主的找矿工作带来诸多困难。近年,利用综合地球物理探测手段,在第四系覆盖区取得重大深部找矿成果,在琼河坝中南部的拉依克勒克地区,发现一个深部斑岩铜(钼)矿床。该矿床是通过地表大比例尺激电扫面,确定一个北西走向、长5000m、宽500~1000m形态较完整的激电异常,通过钻探验证发现的。含矿岩体为一英云闪长岩体,不仅铜(钼)已经达到中型规模,金、铅锌也有很好的前景。在紧邻斑岩矿体的东南部位,还存在一个隐伏的矽卡岩型富铜-铁矿体。本文在对英云闪长岩的蚀变作用、地球化学、成矿特征研究基础上,对蚀变岩中6件辉钼矿样品的Re-Os同位素年龄做了测定,其加权平均模式年龄为411.1±2.4Ma,与本地区其它斑岩矿床的成矿年龄基本一致,进一步确证了琼河坝地区上志留到下泥盆世是区内重要的斑岩型铜多金属成矿期。这对进一步明确琼河坝地区斑岩型矿床的成矿环境和找矿方向有重要意义。     

青海东昆仑拉浪麦钨多金属矿区英云闪长岩锆石U-Pb测年、岩石地球化学及找矿意义

拉浪麦钨多金属矿位于青海东昆仑东段察汗乌苏河地区,是近年新发现的矽卡岩型矿床。本文对矿区与成矿关系密切的英云闪长岩进行了详细的岩相学、年代学和地球化学研究,为东昆仑原特提斯岩浆构造演化提供新的约束。笔者利用LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年,获得拉浪麦英云闪长岩加权平均年龄为421.5±5.0 Ma(n=21,MSWD=0.34),厘定其形成时代为顶志留世。岩石地球化学研究表明,英云闪长岩为弱过铝质低钾拉斑—钙碱性系列岩石,成因为Ⅰ型花岗岩类型。岩石明显富集大离子亲石元素(Rb、Sr、K)、活泼的不相容元素(如U、Th)和Pb,相对亏损高场强元素(如Nb、Ta、P、Ti)。Rb/Sr、Nb/Ta特征反映出岩石具壳幔混合岩浆的特点。结合东昆仑地区已有年代学资料和区域地质构造演化特征,认为拉浪麦英云闪长岩形成于原特提斯构造旋回的后碰撞阶段。综合分析认为加里东晚期也是东昆仑地区一个重要的多金属成矿期,在今后的找矿工作中应引起足够的重视。     

辽宁金州地区太古宙英云闪长岩体的变形与侵位的构造环境

金州地区太古宙英云闪长岩体位于大型NW—SE向“董家沟”低角度右旋剪切带的北侧。岩体与其内部出露的花岗闪长岩侵入体均发生不同程度的变形,二者的变形构造形式协调一致。英云闪长岩体内部显示的原生变形构造、斜长石板状斑晶和角闪石、黑云母颗粒具空间取向,以及拉长斜长石颗粒重结晶集合体的双晶具优选定向等特征,表明是由岩浆流动引起的。两侵入体是同在围岩韧性变形(带)作用的构造环境控制下,先后侵位、变形形成的古深成侵入体。     

Formation of tonalite in island arcs by seawater-induced anatexis of mafic rocks; evidence from the Lyngen Magmatic Complex, North Norwegian Caledonides

The Lyngen Magmatic Complex (LMC) of North Norway, consists of a western suite of layered gabbros of normal-mid oceanic ridge basalt (N-MORB) affinity and an eastern suite of layered gabbronorites, quartz-bearing gabbros and diorites/quartz-diorites of IAT (island-arc tholeiitte) to boninitic affinity. The boundary between the suites is defined by a large-scale ductile shear zone, the Rypdalen shear zone (RSZ). In this shear zone anatectic tonalites were generated by partial melting of the gabbro in the presence of an H₂O bearing fluid phase.Quartz from the tonalites contains early secondary and secondary liquid-dominated inclusions (88-99 wt.% H₂O), with an average salinity of 18 wt.% (calculated as NaCl_eq). Combined gas and ion chromatography shows that the major ions in the fluid are Cl⁻, Ca²⁺, Na⁺ with smaller amounts of K⁺, Mg²⁺, Sr²⁺, Br⁻ and NO₃⁻. The dominant non-H₂O volatile species is N₂ (0.5-10%), and small amounts of CO₂, CH₄ and other hydrocarbons are also present.The cation concentrations in the fluid are variable, due to element exchange during interaction of the fluids with the tonalites, amphibolites and metagabbros of the RSZ. The fluid contributed Na⁺ and K⁺ to the melt and gained Ca²⁺ in exchange, explaining the variable Na⁺/Ca²⁺ ratio of the fluid. The Br⁻ and Cl⁻ contents of the fluid inclusions plot on the same line as evaporating sea water, which strongly suggests a seawater origin for the fluid phase, and a seawater source fits well with other geochemical signatures and the tectonic setting of the LMC.It is suggested that seawater escaped from a subducting slab and was channelled along the Rypdalen shear zone. This caused anatexis of the gabbro, generating tonalitic melts at 0.5-0.9 GPa and 680-800°C.     

Mechanical quality of bedrock with increasing ductile deformation

Most of the rocks in Precambrian shield areas have experienced a complex structural and metamorphic evolution, processes which have a strong influence on bedrock quality. The properties vary on both a local and a regional scale. It is highly beneficial to know the variations in detail when exploiting the rocks for industrial purposes. The main objective of the investigation was to study the variation of rock mechanical properties in an originally more or less isotropic rock at various stages of ductile deformation. The rocks investigated were Paleoproterozoic and with ages of ca. 1.80-1.88 Ga, and the areas chosen for sampling were situated north-east of Lake Vänern (Kristinehamn; 10 samples), south of the city of Eskilstuna, South Central Sweden (5 samples) and south of Ödeshög, near Lake Vättern in southern Sweden (7 samples). The 12 samples from the latter two areas are described in this investigation, while the 10 samples from Kristinehamn have been published earlier (Göransson et al., 2004). A comprehensive study of various parameters of importance for bedrock quality has been performed on all samples, e.g. studded tyre test (STT) and Los Angeles test (LA), uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), ultrasonic velocity, perimeter measurements of mineral phases, and petrographic and chemical analyses. The weakly deformed and massive (more or less isotropic) rocks show a tendency towards better properties of abrasion (STT) than the strongly deformed rocks and this can also be said for UCS, reflecting the greater ability of rocks to split along foliation planes. This is not entirely unambiguous, as the more deformed rocks, such as the mylonites, may have varying properties. This depends on the combined effects of, e.g. grain size, recrystallisation and foliation. However, the brittleness (LA) shows somewhat better values with increased deformation. This may depend on higher amounts of dark minerals, as their existence does not affect this test as much as in the case of abrasion tests. The perimeter values of the mineral phases display generally higher values, i.e. grain boundaries for the more strongly deformed rocks are more complicated. However, the values for the investigated mylonites may vary between low and high. The lower value may be due to dynamic recrystallisation and the creation of triple points (static recrystallisation) making the rock weaker. Besides, the development of a strong foliation may decrease rock strength despite the usually finer grain size. The results show that it is extremely important to consider all possible variations of bedrock before classification and exploitation, as the bedrock material in fact is highly heterogeneous.     

Hornblende-bearing leucosome development during syn-orogenic crustal extension in the Tormes Gneiss Dome, NW Iberian Massif, Spain

The high-grade Lower Unit of the Tormes Gneissic Dome (TGD; NW sector of the Iberian Massif) contains tonalitic orthogneissic bodies that were migmatized during a heterogeneous ductile shearing, related to a major episode of syn-orogenic extensional deformation (D2). Both peak and retrograde P–T conditions were deduced from the analysis of reaction textures related to superimposed S2 fabrics developed during exhumation, analysis of mineral zoning and thermobarometric calculations in CaKFMASH and KFMASH systems. Syn-thermal peak partial melting of the tonalitic orthogneisses, via a biotite-dehydration melting reaction yielding hornblende, K-feldspar and melt, produced stromatic migmatites with leucosomes parallel to the S2 foliation of the mesosome as well as discordant patchy pegmatitic migmatites. The deduced post-thermal peak P–T path comprises an initial phase of decompression combined with cooling from 5.5–6 kbar at 750°C to ca. 4–4.5 kbar at 675°C, consistent with the sequence of initial retrograde mineral assemblages present in high-T mylonitic S2 fabrics. The later part of the syn-D2 P–T path indicates a significant cooling and is recorded by lower amphibolite to greenschist assemblages related to the later mylonitic S2 fabrics. The proposed melt reaction generating hornblende-bearing leucosomes may be important for crustal differentiation processes at mid-crustal levels during syn-orogenic extension, as well as for the production of certain types of high-level granites. The necessary conditions are large volumes of source material of intermediate composition and the production of a sufficient melt fraction.