The effects of gas flaring on crops in the Niger Delta,Nigeria

Flaring of associated gas from oil exploitation has several consequences on the environment. This study explores the spatial variability effects of gas flaring on the growth and development of cassava (Manihot esculenta), waterleaf (Talinum triangulare), and pepper (Piper spp.) crops commonly cultivated in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Data was collected on soil and atmospheric temperature and moisture at a 20-m interval, starting at 40 m from the flare point to a distance of 140 m. Lengths and widths of crop leaves, height of crop plants and cassava yields were measured at the specified distances. The amino acid, ascorbic acid, starch, and sugar constituents of the cassava yields were determined. The results suggest that a spatial gradient exists in the effects of gas flares on crop development. Retardation in crop development manifests in decreased dimensions of leaf lengths and widths of cassava and pepper crops closer to the gas flare point. Statistical analysis also confirms that cassava yields are higher at locations further away from the flare point. In addition, the amount of starch and ascorbic acid in cassava decreased when the plant is grown closer to the gas flare. High temperatures around the gas flare appear to be the most likely cause of this retardation. The waterleaf crop, on the other hand, appears to thrive better around the gas flare point.     

Detection of free gas and gas hydrate based on 3D seismic data and cone penetration testing: An example from the Nigerian Continental Slope

We present a new method to characterize free gas, gas hydrates and carbonate concretions occurrence which are considered as high-risk factors for sub-sea developments in the Niger delta. This method is based on the combination of 3D seismic data to the geotechnical site characterizations using piezocone CPTU tests (Cone Penetration Test with additional measurement of the pore water pressure). A special processing of the 3D seismic data has enabled the determination of the interval compressional velocity. Using the effective-medium theory, velocity anomalies (negative and positive) within the first 15 m were translated in gas hydrate and free gas distribution. The calibration of the P wave velocity anomalies was done thanks to in-situ geotechnical testing carried out during two oceanographic surveys (2003 and 2004). Comparison between in-situ testing, recovered cores and the prediction of the gas and the gas hydrate distribution based on the compressional wave velocity have shown that 3D seismic data is a valuable tool to identify heterogeneous areas but the use of the piezocone was essential to discriminate between gas hydrate occurrences and carbonate concretions' presence. Furthermore, in-situ compressional wave velocity (V_p) measurements have clearly demonstrated what it was suspected from the 3D seismic data, the co-existence in the study area between gas hydrate and free gas.     

尼日尔三角洲东部深水区构造特征及其形成机理

研究尼日尔三角洲东部深水区块发现，整个盆地从陆向洋具有3个大的构造分区：伸展拉张区、过渡区和挤压逆冲区。伸展区以大型同沉积断层伴生大量滚动背斜构造为特征，过渡区发育大量泥底辟构造，挤压区以复杂的逆冲叠瓦构造为主。通过分析形成机理，揭示东部深水转换带上M研究区构造特征，按构造的演化特征将该区构造分为泥底辟型、冲断-泥底辟混合型、逆冲型3种类型，提出研究区内的圈闭主要以构造-岩性圈闭为主，为尼日尔三角洲盆地深水勘探提供新的理论指导。     

Une dépression piézométrique naturelle en hausse au Sahel (Sud-Ouest du Niger)A rising piezometric depression in the Sahel (southwestern Niger)

In southwest Niger, the Continental Terminal water table displays a natural hollow shape about 10 m in depth over an area of 4000 km². A 10-year survey of this hollow aquifer has shown that current recharge is above $\text{20 }\text{mm}\text{yr}{}^{\mathrm{?1}}$. The water table has risen continuously since the 1950–1960s as a result of land clearance. This shows a disequilibrium in the aquifer balance. The long-term recharge rate is estimated by radioisotopes to be around $\text{1 }\text{mm}\text{yr}{}^{\mathrm{?1}}$. This figure fits with the only possible origin of the piezometric depression, i.e. evapotranspiration losses in its centre. To cite this article: G. Favreau et al., C. R. Geoscience 334 (2002) 395–401.     

The influence of differential sedimentary loading and compaction on the development of a deltaic rollover

Three-dimensional seismic data and wireline logs from the western Niger Delta were analyzed to reveal the sedimentary and tectonic history of a major deltaic growth-fault depocenter comprising a kilometer-scale rollover anticline. The seismic units of the rollover show a non-uniform thickness distribution with their respective maximum near the main bounding growth-fault on the landward side of the system. This wedge-shaped sediment-storage architecture ultimately reflects the non-uniform creation of accommodation space in the study area that was controlled by 1) the differential compaction of the hanging-wall and footwall strata, 2) the lateral variation of fault-induced tectonic subsidence above the listric master fault, and possibly 3) local subsidence related to the subsurface movement of mobile shale reacting to loading and buoyancy. A sequential three-dimensional decompaction of the interpreted deltaic rollover units allowed to reconstruct and measure the compaction development of the rollover succession through time, documenting that sediment compaction contributed per depositional interval to between 25 and 35% of the generation of depositional space subsequently filled by deltaic sediments. The incremental decompaction of sedimentary units was further used to quantify the cumulative amount of accommodation space at and around the studied rollover that was created by fault movement, shale withdrawal, regional tectonic subsidence, isostasy and changes in sea level. If data on the regional subsidence and eustasy are available, the contribution of these basinwide controls to the generation of depositional space can be subtracted from the cumulative accommodation balance, which ultimately quantifies the amount of space for sediments to accumulate created by fault movement or shale withdrawal. This observation is important in that it implies that background knowledge on subsidence, stratigraphic age and sea-level changes allows to reconstruct and quantify fault movement in syn-tectonic deltaic growth successions, and this solely based on hanging-wall isopach trends independent of footwall information.     

Changes to flow regime on the Niger River at Koulikoro under a changing climate

Abstract

A significant decrease in mean river flow as well as shifts in flood regimes have been reported at several locations along the River Niger. These changes are the combined effect of persistent droughts, damming and increased consumption of water. Moreover, it is believed that climate change will impact on the hydrological regime of the river in the next decades and exacerbate existing problems. While decision makers and stakeholders are aware of these issues, it is hard for them to figure out what actions should be taken without a quantitative estimate of future changes. In this paper, a Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model of the Niger River watershed at Koulikoro was successfully calibrated, then forced with the climate time series of variable length generated by nine regional climate models (RCMs) from the AMMA-ENSEMBLES experiment. The RCMs were run under the SRES A1B emissions scenario. A combination of quantile-quantile transformation and nearest-neighbour search was used to correct biases in the distributions of RCM outputs. Streamflow time series were generated for the 2026–2050 period (all nine RCMs), and for the 2051–2075 and 2076–2100 periods (three out of nine RCMs) based on the availability of RCM simulations. It was found that the quantile-quantile transformation improved the simulation of both precipitation extremes and ratio of monthly dry days/wet days. All RCMs predicted an increase in temperature and solar radiation, and a decrease in average annual relative humidity in all three future periods relative to the 1981–1989 period, but there was no consensus among them about the direction of change of annual average wind speed, precipitation and streamflow. When all model projections were averaged, mean annual precipitation was projected to decrease, while the total precipitation in the flood season (August, September, October) increased, driving the mean annual flow up by 6.9% (2026–2050), 0.9% (2051–2075) and 5.6% (2076–2100). A t-test showed that changes in multi-model annual mean flow and annual maximum monthly flow between all four periods were not statistically significant at the 95% confidence level.     

Origin and depositional environments of source rocks and crude oils from Niger Delta Basin: Carbon isotopic evidence

Thirty-nine crude oils and twenty-one rock samples from Niger Delta Basin, Nigeria have been characterized based on their isotope compositions by elemental analysis-isotope ratio mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-isotope ratio mass spectrometry. The bulk carbon isotopic values of the whole rock extracts, saturate and aromatic fractions range from –28.7‰ to –26.8‰, –29.2‰ to –27.2 ‰ and –28.5 ‰ to –26.7 ‰, respectively while the bulk carbon isotopic values of the whole oils, saturate and aromatic fractions range from –25.4 ‰ to –27.8 ‰, –25.9 ‰ to –28.4 ‰ and –23.5 ‰ to –26.9 ‰, respectively. The average carbon isotopic compositions of individual alkanes (nC₁₂-nC₃₃) in the rock samples range from –34.9‰ to –28.2‰ whereas the average isotopic values of individual n-alkanes in the oils range from –31.1‰ to –23.8‰. The δ¹³C isotope ratios of pristane and phytane in the rock samples range from –29.2 ‰ to –28.2 ‰ and –30.2 ‰ to –27.4 ‰ respectively while the pristane and phytane isotopic values range from –32.1‰ to –21.9‰ and –30.5‰ to –26.9‰, respectively. The isotopic values recorded for the samples indicated that the crude oils were formed from the mixed input of terrigenous and marine organic matter and deposited under oxic to sub-oxic condition in lacustrine-fluvial/deltaic environments. The stable carbon isotopic compositions were found to be effective in assessing the origin and depositional environments of crude oils in the Niger Delta Basin.     

尼日尔Termit盆地上白垩统成藏条件分析与勘探策略

尼日尔Termit盆地纵向上主要发育白垩系和古近系两套大的成藏组合,其中上组合古近系Sokor组为主力成藏组合,下组合白垩系为潜在成藏组合。盆地整体从下到上发育了下白垩统陆相-上白垩统海相-古近系陆相沉积旋回,发育了特殊的海侵层序。随着Termit盆地古近系主力成藏组合的勘探程度越来越高,亟待开辟新的勘探领域。基于研究和勘探实践,对Termit盆地下组合(白垩系)勘探新层系进行了探索。下组合白垩系又可以细分为K1、Donga组和Yogou组上段(YS3段)3个成藏组合,通过构造建模、沉积体系研究和油气成藏条件分析,认为YS3段具有较好的成藏条件,是下步勘探的重点领域。YS3段形成于海平面高频震荡下行时期,总体为海陆过渡相,三角洲体系发育,以砂泥互层沉积为主;其中发育的泥岩为该盆地主力烃源岩且大面积成熟,生烃潜力大,同时又是非常好的局部盖层;三角洲相石英砂岩结构和成分成熟度高,可做良好储层,且与烃源岩交互发育,埋藏适中,因此YS3段具有良好的“近源”油气成藏条件。结合构造研究和钻井揭示特征进行Yogou组时期沉积体系研究,建立时间与空间演化序列特征,评价物源体系和储层发育特征,进而优选有利勘探区带。通过盆地东、西和南缘沉积期古地形的对比研究,认为Yogou组时期盆地在不同盆地边缘位置具有不同的地形和沉积体系发育特征,西部Dinga断阶带为“陡坡带”特征,隆起区通过几组深大断裂快速进入深凹区,连接隆起和深凹区的斜坡区较窄;南部Yogou斜坡区和东部Fana低凸起地区地形较缓,斜坡区域面积大,有利区带广,据此建立了“陡坡带”和“缓坡带”沉积模式。东部隆起带在晚白垩世为Termit盆地的主力物源区,西部和南部为次要物源区,因此在海侵层序后期在东部广泛发育大规模三角洲前缘砂与泥岩互层的层序,南部次之,西部规模最小。烃源岩研究认为YS3段烃源岩为陆源有机质,与物源规模有关。因此沉积体系研究认为盆地西南部和东南部“缓坡带”储层和烃源岩都更加发育,成藏条件和可勘探面积都优于盆地西部“陡坡带”。下组合白垩系Yogou组YS3段与上组合古近系Sokor组比缺乏区域盖层,上组合反向断块勘探策略不适合YS3段层系,应重点针对背斜圈闭、小断距反向断块、顺向断块和岩性圈闭进行勘探。     

尼日尔Termit盆地低阻油层成因机理及综合识别技术

尼日尔Termit盆地地层水矿化度低(矿化度为200×10-6~1 500×10-6),油气水系统和流体类型非常复杂,不仅发育多套油气水系统,而且正常油气层、低阻油层均存在。实践证明,应用单一的资料和相同的方法很难评价如此复杂的流体类型,尤其是低阻油层的识别。通过已钻井证实,该盆地古近系Sokor1组和白垩系Yogou组普遍存在低阻油层,其电阻率特征主要表现为两类,一是同一沉积时期内油层电阻率与相邻水层电阻率相近,二是油层的电阻率与邻近泥岩的电阻率相近。根据薄片、扫描电镜、黏土X 衍射、压汞等资料,考虑岩石粒度、孔隙结构、黏土矿物含量及类型、油层厚度、导电矿物等,分析研究了该盆地低阻油层成因的微观机理和宏观影响因素。研究结果表明,岩石颗粒细、黏土含量高及微孔隙发育导致束缚水含量高是目标盆地低阻油层形成的主要微观机理。宏观影响因素主要是油层薄和咸水泥浆侵入。根据低阻油层成因及其测、录井资料的响应特征分析研究认为,综合利用电阻率和自然伽马、电阻率和自然电位相对值交会图,将录井油气显示定量化得到的录井油气显示级别的综合指数GEOFI与气测总烃TG交会图,RFT压力资料计算的流体密度可以有效识别该盆地低阻油层。研究还揭示了低阻油层在Termit盆地平面和纵向上的分布规律,平面上分布在Dinga地堑、Fana低凸起和Yogou斜坡的各油田中,纵向上主要集中在第三系Sokor1组的E1、E2小层河流相沉积及白垩系三角洲和湖相沉积的砂泥岩互层中。     

Seafloor and buried mounds on the western slope of the Niger Delta

Seafloor mounds are potential geohazards to offshore rig emplacement and drilling operations and may contain evidence of underlying petroleum systems. Therefore, identifying and mapping them is crucial in de-risking exploration and production activities in offshore domains.A 738 km² high resolution three-dimensional seismic dataset was used to investigate the occurrence, seismic characteristics and distribution of features interpreted as seafloor and buried sediment mounds, at water-depths of 800–1600 m, on the western Niger Delta slope. Fifteen seafloor mounds and eighteen shallowly buried mounds were identified. The seafloor mounds are characterised by lower seismic amplitude anomalies than the surrounding seabed sediments, and overlie vertical zones of acoustic blanking. The buried mounds in contrast are characterised by high amplitude anomalies; they also directly overlie sub-vertical zones of acoustic blanking. Seismic evidences from the features, their distribution patterns and tectono-stratigraphic associations suggest that their formation was controlled by the juxtaposition of buried channels and structural highs and their formation caused by focused fluid flow and expulsion of entrained sediments at the seabed.Considering the acoustic and geometrical characteristics of the mounds and comparing them with mound-shaped features from around the world, we conclude that the mounds most likely comprise heterolithic seafloor extrusions of muds and sands from the Agbada Formation with gas and possibly oil in some of the pore space giving rise to the acoustic characteristics.