Redefining active volcanoes: a discussion

The analysis of the current definitions of active volcanoes indicates that they are empirical, conventional, inaccurate, nongeological, and arbitrarily constraining. Redefinition is therefore needed. One possible approach is to refine the current empirical definitions. A statistically reasonable and practical redefinition using a geologically based time convention-Holocene or 10000 years-is suggested. A set of time conditions according to volcano typology-i.e. 1000; 10000 and 100000 years for high-frequency basaltic shields, andesitic-dacitic composite volcanoes and low-frequency large silicic calderas, respectively-as further refinement of the empirical definition is also envisaged. Devising a phenomenological definition as a theoretical approach is another possibility, but in practice extant diagnostic means are still unsatisfactory to discriminate accurately between dormant and extinct volcanoes. As a consequence of the redefinition, a classification of volcanoes according to their eruptive status is proposed. Redefinition of active volcanoes might increase accuracy in the usage of basic terms in volcanology and influence volcanic hazard assessment and risk mitigation projects.     

五大连池第四纪火山岩层序划分及其构造与生态意义

大量前人成果和1:5万区调钻孔资料证实,五大连池第四纪火山地层属于水平岩层.因此,该地区第四纪火山地层的划分,是在地表岩石层序与钻孔岩石层序充分划分与对比的基础上进行的.从沉积角度看,五大连池火山地层属于松嫩盆地连续沉积过程中的第四纪短暂幕式火山喷发所形成的水平岩层.本文结合K-Ar同位素测年新资料,将该区第四纪岩石地层重新划分为11个组级地层单位.其中的火山岩石地层可以自下而上划分为:下更新统焦得布玄武岩(1.214—1.113 Ma);中更新统尾山玄武岩(0.62—0.285 Ma);中更新统笔架山玄武岩(0.24—0.132 Ma)和全新统老黑山玄武岩(距今290～288 a),对夹于其间的正常沉积地层也进行了相应的划分.对层状火山岩层序的层位划分和空间分布研究对于理解五大连池火山群的构造背景和生态环境具有特别重要的意义,五大连池火山群处于中国大陆内部的大同—大兴安岭火山岩带的最北东端,是地幔流体向北东方向流动的最前缘;这类富钾的碱性玄武岩的火山喷发活动对东北富饶的黑土地的形成具有重要贡献,火山岩在嫩江平原上塑造的台地和火山锥地形地貌对生态多样性和优质地下水的生态要素具有重要影响.     

The Holocene tephrostratigraphic record of Lake Shkodra (Albania and Montenegro)

Two cores were recovered in the southeastern part of Lake Shkodra (Montenegro and Albania) and sampled for identification of tephra layers. The first core (SK13, 7.8 m long) was recovered from a water depth of 7 m, while the second core (SK19, 5.8 m long) was recovered close to the present‐day shoreline (water depth of 2 m). Magnetic susceptibility investigations show generally low values with some peaks that in some cases are related to tephra layers. Naked‐eye inspection of the cores allowed the identification of four tephra layers in core SK13 and five tephra layers in core SK19. Major element analyses on glass shards and mineral phases allowed correlation of the tephra layers between the two cores, and their attribution to six different Holocene explosive eruptions of southern Italy volcanoes. Two tephra layers have under‐saturated composition of glass shards (foiditic and phonolitic) and were correlated to the AD 472 and the Avellino (ca. 3.9 cal. ka BP) eruptions of Somma‐Vesuvius. One tephra layer has benmoreitic composition and was correlated to the FL eruption of Mount Etna (ca. 3.4 cal. ka BP). The other three tephra layers have trachytic composition and were correlated to Astroni (ca. 4.2 cal. ka BP), Agnano Monte Spina (ca. 4.5 cal. ka BP) and Agnano Pomici Principali (ca. 12.3 cal. ka BP) eruptions of Campi Flegrei. The ages of tephra layers are in broad agreement with eight ¹⁴C accelerator mass spectrometric measurements carried out on plant remains and charcoal from the lake sediments at different depths along the two cores. The recognition of distal tephra layers from Italian volcanoes allowed the physical link of the Holocene archive of Lake Shkodra to other archives located in the central Mediterranean area and the Balkans (i.e. Lake Ohrid). Five of the recognised tephra layers were recognised for the first time in the Balkans area, and this has relevance for volcanic hazard assessment and for ash dispersal forecasting in case of renewed explosive activity from some of the southern Italy volcanoes. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Nonseismic phenomena in the generation and augmentation of tsunamis

While earthquakes generate about 90% of all tsunamis, volcanic activity, landslides, explosions, and other nonseismic phenomena can also result in tsunamis. There have been 53 000 reported deaths as a result of tsunamis generated by landslides and volcanoes. No death tolls are available for many events, but reports indicate that villages, islands, and even entire civilizations have disappeared. Some of the highest tsunami wave heights ever observed were produced by landslides. In the National Geophysical Data Center world-wide tsunami database, there are nearly 200 tsunami events in which nonseismic phenomena played a major role. In this paper, we briefly discuss a variety of nonseismic phenomena that can result in tsunamis. We discuss the magnitude of the disasters that have resulted from such events, and we discuss the potential for reducing such disasters by education and warning systems.     

New K–Ar ages for calculating end-of-shield extrusion rates at West Maui volcano,Hawaiian island chain

Thirty-seven new K–Ar ages from West Maui volcano, Hawai‘i, are used to define the waning stages of shield growth and a brief episode of postshield volcanism. All but two samples from shield-stage strata have reversed polarity magnetization, so conceivably the exposed shield is not much older than the Olduvai Normal-Polarity subchron, or about 1.8 Ma. The oldest ages obtained are in the range 1.9–2.1 Ma but have large analytical error. Shield volcanism ended about 1.35 Ma, and postshield volcanism followed soon thereafter, persisting until about 1.2 Ma. Exposed shield-stage strata were emplaced at a rate of about 0.001 km³ per year, a rate smaller than historic Hawaiian magmatic rates by a factor of 100. Stratigraphic accumulation rates are similar to those measured previously at Wai‘anae volcano (O‘ahu) or the upper part of the Mauna Kea shield sequence (Hilo drill core, Hawai‘i). These rates diminish sharply during the final 0.3–0.5 m.y. of the shield stage. Hawaiian shield volcanoes begin waning well before their last 0.5 m.y. of life, then end quickly, geologically speaking, if West Maui is representative.     

火山活动与构造气候旋回

火山活动是一种重要的地质现象,它的发生总是与构造运动相关联,构造运动有强有弱,持续时间有长有短,具有旋目性,火山活动同样也具有旋回性。大规模的火山喷发往往会对气候变化产生影响,而影响的程度取决于火山所处的位置和喷发的性质及程度。强烈的火山喷发将造成局部地区乃至全球气温下降,由此人们推测火山喷发多发生在冰期,然而统计资料表明,绝大多数火山喷发发生在间冰期,此时的构造运动也比较活跃,而在冰期时很少有火山喷发。至于火山喷发后在短时间内造成的降温与长时间的冰期不能相提并论。火山活动有旋回性,它影响的气候变化也具备有旋回性,这是构造气候旋回的一种表现形式。     

Scleractinian cold-water corals in the Gulf of Cádiz—First clues about their spatial and temporal distribution

This paper presents the first compilation of information on the spatial distribution of scleractinian cold-water corals in the Gulf of Cádiz based on literature research and own observations (video footage, sediment samples). Scleractinian cold-water corals are widely distributed along the Spanish and Moroccan margins in the Gulf of Cádiz, where they are mainly associated with mud volcanoes, diapiric ridges, steep fault escarpments, and coral mounds. Dendrophyllia cornigera, Dendrophyllia alternata, Eguchipsammia cornucopia, Madrepora oculata and Lophelia pertusa are the most abundant reef-forming species. Today, they are almost solely present as isolated patches of fossil coral and coral rubble. The absence of living scleractinian corals is likely related to a reduced food supply caused by low productivity and diminished tidal effects. In contrast, during the past 48 kyr scleractinian corals were abundant in the Gulf of Cádiz, although their occurrence demonstrates no relationship with main climatic or oceanographic changes. Nevertheless, there exists a conspicuous relationship when the main species are considered separately. Dendrophylliids are associated with periods of relatively stable and warm conditions. The occurrence of L. pertusa mainly clusters within the last glacial when bottom current strength in the Gulf of Cádiz was enhanced and long-term stable conditions existed in terms of temperature. Madrepora oculata shows a higher tolerance to abrupt environmental changes.     

A predictive numerical model for potential mapping of the gas hydrate stability zone in the Gulf of Cadiz

This paper presents a computational model for mapping the regional 3D distribution in which seafloor gas hydrates would be stable, that is carried out in a Geographical Information System (GIS) environment. The construction of the model is comprised of three primary steps, namely: (1) the construction of surfaces for the various variables based on available 3D data (seafloor temperature, geothermal gradient and depth-pressure); (2) the calculation of the gas function equilibrium functions for the various hydrocarbon compositions reported from hydrate and sediment samples; and (3) the calculation of the thickness of the hydrate stability zone. The solution is based on a transcendental function, which is solved iteratively in a GIS environment.The model has been applied in the northernmost continental slope of the Gulf of Cadiz, an area where an abundant supply for hydrate formation, such as extensive hydrocarbon seeps, diapirs and fault structures, is combined with deep undercurrents and a complex seafloor morphology. In the Gulf of Cadiz, the model depicts the distribution of the base of the gas hydrate stability zone for both biogenic and thermogenic gas compositions, and explains the geometry and distribution of geological structures derived from gas venting in the Tasyo Field (Gulf of Cadiz) and the generation of BSR levels on the upper continental slope.     

Tectonically-driven mud volcanism since the late Pliocene on the Calabrian accretionary prism,central Mediterranean Sea

Mud volcanoes recently discovered on the offshore Calabrian Arc are investigated at two sites 60 km apart, in water depths of 1650--2300 m, using swath bathymetry, 2D&3D multichannel seismic and cores. The seabed and subsurface data provide information on their formation and functioning in relation to tectonic activity during the rapid Plio-Quaternary advance of the accretionary prism. Fore-arc extension and thrust-belt compression are seen to have involved two main phases of activity, separated by a regional unconformity recording a mid-Pliocene (3.5–3.0 Ma) tectonic reorganization. The two sites of mud volcanism lie in contrasting tectonic settings (inner fore-arc basin vs central fold-and-thrust belt) and record differing forms of seabed extrusive activity (twin mud cones and a caldera vs a broad mud pie). At both sites, subsurface data show that mud volcanism took place throughout the second tectonic phase, since the late Pliocene; differing forms of mud extrusion were accompanied by subsidence to form depressions beneath and within extrusive edifices up to 1.5 km thick. The basal subsidence depressions point to sources within the succession of thrusts underlying the inner to central Arc, consistent with microfossils within cored mud breccias from both sites that are derived from strata as old as Late Cretaceous.     

The Late Holocene to Pleistocene tephrostratigraphic record of Lake Ohrid (Albania)

We present in this work a tephrostratigraphic record from a sediment piston core (JO 2004) from Lake Ohrid. Five tephra layers were recognised, all from explosive eruptions of southern Italy volcanoes. A multidisciplinary study was carried out, including stratigraphy, AMS ¹⁴C chronology and geochemistry. The five tephra layers were correlated with terrestrial proximal counterparts and with both marine and lacustrine tephra layers already known in the central Mediterranean area. The oldest is from Pantelleria Island (P11, 131 ka BP). Other three tephra layers are from Campanian volcanoes: X6, Campanian Ignimbrite-Y5 and SMP1-Y3 (107, 39 and 31 ka BP respectively). The youngest tephra layer corresponds to the FL eruption from Etna Volcano (3.4 ka BP). In three cases these recognitions confirm previous findings in the Balkans, while two of them were for the first time recognised in the area, with a significant enlargement of the previous assessed dispersal areas.