面向3DGIS场景的BIM模型转换与集成研究

通过深入分析BIM模型在3DGIS场景中集成的现状、问题和难点,针对图元信息转换优化、属性信息的提取整合、模型轻量化、共享调度、全生命周期的集成管理等内容,结合IFC、CityGML等标准,提出了一种BIM模型向3DGIS场景转换与集成的框架。以长江水利委员会大院管理信息系统为例,论述了在形成初步三维地形场景和建筑外观模型后,在该框架下将BIM建筑模型转换并集成到3DGIS场景中的过程,验证了该方法的实用性和可操作性。     

Shell model representation as a substitute of LoD3 for 3D modeling in CityGML

The OGC standard for 3D city modeling is widely used in an increasing number of applications.It defines five consecutive Levels of Detail(LoD0 to LoD4 with increasing accuracy and structural complexity),in which LoD3 includes all exterior appearances and geometrical details and subsequently requires much storage space.A new LoD is introduced as shell model with the exterior shell of the LoD3 model and the opening objects like windows,doors as well as smaller faade objects are projected onto walls.In this paper,a user survey is presented.The results of this survey show that the shell model can give users almost the same visual impression as the LoD3 model.Furthermroe,algorithms are developed to extract the shell model from LoD3 model.Experiments show that this shell model can reduce up to 90% storage of the original LoD3 model.Therefore,on one hand it can be used as a substitute for a LoD3 model for the visualization on small displays.On the other hand,it can be treated as a sub-level of detail(SLoD3) in CityGML,since it retains almost the same amount of information but requires much less storage space.     

一种基于CityGML的三维模型单体化方法

实景三维中国建设应满足自然资源管理与社会经济发展需求,因此需要对基础地理信息产品进行实体化改造,三维模型单体化正是实体化改造的关键环节。本文提出了一种基于CityGML的三维模型单体化方法,首先根据地物实体轮廓的二维矢量面提供的顶点坐标及高程信息,构造墙面、屋顶等多边形平面组成地物的简单三维表达,然后配合渲染到纹理技术（RTT）进行纹理贴图,基于CityGML为每个二维矢量面对应的地物重构出有语义、有LOD层级的三维模型。该方法能够高效地实现三维模型单体化,且成果模型容量小,可满足各种实景三维应用需求。     

Automatically enhancing CityGML LOD2 models with a corresponding indoor geometry

The international standard CityGML defines five levels of detail (LODs) for 3D city models, but only the highest of these (LOD4) supports modelling the indoor geometry of a building, which must be acquired in correspondingly high detail and therefore at a high cost. Whereas simple 3D city models of the exterior of buildings (e.g. CityGML LOD2) can be generated largely automatically, and are thus now widely available and have a great variety of applications, similarly simple models containing their indoor geometries are rare.

In this paper we present two contributions: (i) the definition of a level of detail LOD2+, which extends the CityGML LOD2 specification with indoor building geometries of comparable complexity to their exterior geometries in LOD2; and more importantly (ii) a method for automatically generating such indoor geometries based on existing CityGML LOD2 exterior geometries. We validate our method by generating LOD2+ models for a subset of the Rotterdam 3D data set and visually comparing these models to their real counterparts in building blueprints and imagery from Google Street View and Bing Maps. Furthermore, we use the LOD2+ models to compute the net internal area of each dwelling and validate our results by comparing these values to the ones registered in official government data sets.     

基于CityGML的城市建筑物三维建模研究

城市建筑物三维建模是虚拟3D城市建模的基础和重要组成部分。本文对基于CityGML1.0（City Geography Markup Language 1.0,城市地理标记语言）的城市建筑物三维建模技术进行了深入的研究,主要内容包含了CityGML1.0的简介、城市建筑物三维建模的方法和内容等,并给出了一个实际建模的例...     

建筑物室内空间建模研究综述

建筑物室内空间建模是地理信息、位置服务、智能建筑等领域关注的热点之一,是室内开展精细化、人性化、智能化应用与服务不可回避的问题。本文首先回顾了室内空间建模的发展现状,总结归纳了室内空间的四个显著特点,然后比较分析了三类常用室内空间建模方法的优缺点,最后重点介绍了CityGML,BISDM,IndoorGML,BIM四个数据模型的基本内容,并从不同角度进行了横向对比。     

A three-step approach of simplifying 3D buildings modeled by CityGML

CityGML (City Geography Markup Language), the OGC (Open Open Geospatial Consortium) standard on three-dimensional (3D) city modeling, is widely used in an increasing number of applications, because it models a city with rich geometrical and semantic information. The underlying building model differentiates four consecutive levels of detail (LoDs). Nowadays, most city buildings are reconstructed in LoD3, while few landmarks in LoD4. For visualization or other purposes, buildings in LoD2 or LoD1 need to be derived from LoD3 models. But CityGML does not indicate methods for the automatic derivation of the different LoDs. This article presents an approach for deriving LoD2 buildings from LoD3 models which are essentially the exterior shells of buildings without opening objects. This approach treats different semantic components of a building separately with the aim to preserve the characteristics of ground plan, roof, and wall structures as far as possible. The process is composed of three steps: simplifying wall elements, generalizing roof structures, and then reconstructing the 3D building by intersecting the wall and roof polygons. The first step simplifies ground plan with wall elements projected onto the ground. A new algorithm is developed to handle not only simple structures like parallel and rectangle shapes but also complicated structures such as non-parallel, non-rectangular shapes and long narrow angles. The algorithm for generalizing roof structure is based on the same principles; however, the calculation has to be conducted in 3D space. Moreover, the simplified polygons of roof structure are further merged and typified depending on the spatial relations between two neighboring polygons. In the third step, generalized 3D buildings are reconstructed by increasing walls in height and intersecting with roof structures. The approach has been implemented and tested on a number of 3D buildings. The experiments have verified that the 3D building can be efficiently generalized, while the characteristics of wall and roof structure can be well preserved after the simplification.     

An evaluation of ontology matching techniques on geospatial ontologies

Standardization is one of the pillars of interoperability. In this context, efforts promoted by the Open Geospatial Consortium, such as CityGML (Technical University, Berlin), a standard for exchanging three-dimensional models or urban city objects, are welcomed. However, information from other domains of interest (e.g. energy efficiency or building information modeling) is needed for tasks such as land planning, large-scale flooding analysis, or demand/supply energy simulations. CityGML allows extension in order to integrate information from other domains, but the development process is expensive because there is no way to perform it automatically. The discovery of correspondences between CityGML concepts and other domains concepts poses a significant challenge.

Ontology matching is the research field emerged from the Semantic Web to address automatic ontology integration. Using the ontology underlying CityGML and the ontologies which model other domains of interest, ontology matching would be able to find the correspondences that would permit the integration in a more automatic manner than it is done now.

In this paper, we evaluate if ontology matching techniques allow performing an automatic integration of geospatial information modeled from different viewpoints. In order to achieve this, an evaluation methodology was designed, and it was applied to the discovery of relationships between CityGML and ontologies coming from the building information modeling and Geospatial Semantic Web domains. The methodology and the results of the evaluation are presented. The best results have been achieved using string-based techniques, while matching systems give the worst precision and recall. Only in a few cases the values are over 50%, which shows the limitations when these techniques are applied to ontologies with a partial overlap.     

CityGML goes mobile: application of large 3D CityGML models on smartphones

CityGML, a semantic information model for digital/virtual city models has become quite popular in various scenarios. While the data format is still actively under development, it is already supported by different software solutions, especially GIS-based desktop applications. Mobile systems on the other hand are still neglected, even though the georeferenced objects of CityGML have many application fields, for example, in the currently popular area of location-based Augmented Reality. In this paper we present an independent multi-platform CityGML viewer, its architecture and specific implementation techniques that we use to realize and optimize the process of visualizing CityGML data for use in Augmented Reality. The main focus lies in improving the implementation on mobile devices, such as smartphones, and assessing its usability and performance in comparison to web-based approaches. Due to the constrained hardware resources of smartphones, it is a particular challenge to handle complex 3D objects and large virtual worlds as provided by CityGML, not only in terms of memory and storage space, but also with respect to mobile processing units and display sizes.     

基于CityGML的明清古建筑三维语义模型扩展及转换研究

针对现有的大量古建筑三维模型缺乏语义信息,不利于精细化和智能化管理等问题,对城市地理标记语言（City Geography Markup Language, CityGML）定义的建筑物模型进行了语义扩展,提出了一种从古建筑几何模型自动识别语义对象并转化为CityGML扩展模型的方法。首先,总结我国明清古建筑构件的共有特征,并使用CityGML的应用领域扩展机制增加斗拱、梁、柱、台基等古建筑通用对象的几何和语义表达。其次,利用古建筑Mesh模型各面片的法向量、坐标范围等特征和自定义规则提出了一套古建筑屋顶、墙面、立柱、门窗等语义对象自动识别方法。最后,依据CityGML扩展模型设计规范,从识别对象自动构建出几何语义一体化表达的古建筑三维模型。采用2个不同风格的古建筑模型进行语义对象提取和CityGML模型生成实验,使用本文提出的Mesh模型到CityGML LoD3扩展语义模型转换方法能够自动提取屋顶、墙面、台基等9类语义对象,每个Mesh模型能转换并生成400多个包含语义信息的平面多边形,95%以上的面片能正确识别。结果表明本文设计的CityGML扩展模型能够有效支持古建筑模型典型构件的显式语义表达,并且识别规则和转换方法能够支持Mesh模型大多数平面对象的提取,有利于CityGML模型的自动化生成和精细化管理。