Optimal deflection of NEOs en route of collision with the Earth

Recently, a method for the n-body analysis of the velocity change required to deflect a hazardous near-Earth object (NEO) was presented by Carusi et al. [Carusi, A., Valsecchi, G.B., D'Abramo, G., Boattini A., 2002. Icarus 159, 417-422]. We extent this method in order to optimize the velocity change vector instead of its along-track magnitude. From an application of both methods to a fictitious NEO we find Carusi's parallel approach to be reasonable for phases of unperturbed two-body motion. But, for orbit phases inhering third-body perturbations, i.e., for planetary close approaches or prior to a collision, the results obtained from the new method show the radial component of deflection impulse to play a major role. We show that a fivefold greater efficiency can be achieved by a deflection impulse being non-parallel to orbital velocity. The new method is applied to two possible 99942 Apophis impact trajectories in order to provide constraints for future Apophis deflection mission analysis.     

Authors' Reply

Abstract— Jull et al. propose an alternative interpretation of our depth vs. ¹⁴C data measured on a peat core from the central Tunguska impact site (Rasmussen et al., 1999). We find that the proposed alternative is untenable.     

Stratigraphy and sedimentation rates of Upper Cretaceous deep-water systems of the Rhenodanubian Group (Eastern Alps, Germany)

In the Bavarian Alps (Germany), west of the Isar River, the abyssal deposits of the Lower Barremian to Upper Campanian Rhenodanubian Group consist of siliciclastic and calcareous turbidites alternating with hemipelagic non-calcareous mudstones. The up to 1500-m-thick succession, deposited in the Penninic Basin to the south of the European Plate, is characterized by a low mean sedimentation rate (c. 25 mm kyr⁻¹) over 60 million years. Palaeocurrents and turbidite facies distribution patterns suggest that sedimentation occurred on a weakly inclined abyssal plain. The highest sedimentation rates (up to 240 mm kyr⁻¹) were associated with the calcareous mud turbidites of the newly defined Röthenbach Subgroup, which includes the Piesenkopf, Kalkgraben and Hällritz formations (Middle Coniacian to Middle Campanian). These calcareous turbidites prograded from the west, and interfinger towards the east with red hemipelagic claystone. A high sea level presumably favoured pelagic carbonate production and accumulation on the shelves and on internal platforms in the western part of the basin, whereas siliciclastic shelves with steep slope angles have bordered the eastern part of the basin, where a dearth of turbidite sedimentation and increased Cretaceous oceanic red beds deposition occurred. In contrast to the eustatically-induced Middle Coniacian to Lower Campanian Cretaceous oceanic red beds (calcareous nannoplankton zones CC14 to CC18), red hemipelagites of Early Cenomanian age (upper part of calcareous nannoplankton zone CC9) and early Late Campanian age (upper part of zone CC21 and zone CC22) are interpreted as the result of regional tectonic activity.     

Calcareous nannoplankton, planktonic foraminiferal, and carbonate carbon isotope stratigraphy of the Cenomanian–Turonian boundary section in the Ultrahelvetic Zone (Eastern Alps, Upper Austria)

Ultrahelvetic units of the Eastern Alps were deposited on the distal European continental margin of the (Alpine) Tethys. The Rehkogelgraben section (“Buntmergelserie”, Ultrahelvetic unit, Upper Austria) comprises a 5 m thick succession of upper Cenomanian marl-limestone cycles overlain by a black shale interval composed of three black shale layers and carbonate-free claystones, followed by lower Turonian white to light grey marly limestones with thin marl layers. The main biostratigraphic events in the section are the last occurrence of Rotalipora and the first occurrences of Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica and Quadrum gartneri. The thickest black shale horizon has a TOC content of about 5%, with predominantly marine organic matter of kerogen type II. Vitrinite reflectance and Rock-Eval parameter T_max (<424 °C) indicate low maturity. HI values range from 261 to 362 mg HC/g TOC. δ¹³C values of bulk rock carbonates display the well documented positive shift around the black shale interval, allowing correlation of the Rehkogelgraben section with other sections such as the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) succession at Pueblo, USA, and reference sections at Eastbourne, UK, and Gubbio, Italy. Sediment accumulation rates at Rehkogelgraben (average 2.5 mm/ka) are significantly lower than those at Pueblo and Eastbourne.     

Geobarometry for Peridotites: Experiments in Simple and Natural Systems from 6 to 10 GPa

Experiments with peridotite minerals in simple (MgO–Al₂O₃–SiO₂,CaO–MgO–SiO₂ and CaO–MgO–Al₂O₃–SiO₂)and natural systems were conducted at 1300–1500°Cand 6–10 GPa using a multi-anvil apparatus. The experimentsin simple systems demonstrated consistency with previous lowerpressure experiments in belt and piston–cylinder set-ups.The analysis of spatial variations in pyroxene compositionswithin experimental samples was used to demonstrate that pressureand temperature variations within the samples were less than0·4 GPa and 50°C. Olivine capsules were used in natural-systemexperiments with two mineral mixtures: SC1 (olivine + high-Alorthopyroxene + high-Al clinopyroxene + spinel) and J4 (olivine+ low-Al orthopyroxene + low-Al clinopyroxene + garnet). Theexperiments produced olivine + orthopyroxene + garnet ±clinopyroxene assemblages, occasionally with magnesite and carbonate-richmelt. Equilibrium compositions were derived by the analysisof grain rims and evaluation of mineral zoning. They were comparedwith our previous experiments with the same starting mixturesat 2·8–6·0 GPa and the results from simplesystems. The compositions of minerals from experiments withnatural mixtures show smooth pressure and temperature dependencesup to a pressure of 8 GPa. The experiments at 9 and 10 GPa producedandradite-rich garnets and pyroxene compositions deviating fromthe trends defined by the lower pressure experiments (e.g. higherAl in orthopyroxene and Ca in clinopyroxene). This discrepancyis attributed to a higher degree of oxidation in the high-pressureexperiments and an orthopyroxene–high-P clinopyroxenephase transition at 9 GPa. Based on new and previous resultsin simple and natural systems, a new version of the Al-in-orthopyroxenebarometer is presented. The new barometer adequately reproducesexperimental pressures up to 8 GPa. KEY WORDS: garnet; mineral equilibrium; multi-anvil apparatus; orthopyroxene; geobarometry     

Baryt und ankerit aus Ammoniten des Berner Juras (Schweiz)

Barite has been found for the first time in the Swiss Jura (Hirni, Passwang). Small, white crystals of barite with yellow ankerite grow on calcite in different chambers of a Bajocian ammonite. Chemical data (by microprobe analysis) and lattice parameters (refined by leastsquares from powder patterns) are given for the two minerals. There is a distinct correlation between the cell dimensions and the chemical composition for both of them. The genesis is discussed.