Scaling model experiments on propagation of electromagnetic waves using salt solution to simulate the Earth's crust: Loma Prieta and Kobe earthquakes

Propagation of electromagnetic (EM) waves from an earthquake focus in the conductive Earth has been investigated using 1/1,000,000 scaling models taking earth-ionosphere and ocean-Moho plane parallel-plate waveguides into account. Microwaves at a frequency, ω_m, a million times higher than that of seismic EM signal (SEMS), ω, were generated at the model focus. They are propagated in a salt solution modeling the earth's crust and reflected by ocean, fault planes, ionosphere and Moho plane all made by aluminum. Distribution of EM power was mapped by scanning a detector antenna over the model Earth's surface. The skin depth, δ, calculated by the exact skin depth equation, 1/δ=ω(μ/2)^1/2 [(1+(1/ωρ)²)^1/2 −1]^1/2 where dielectric constant, and permeability, μ are the same but resistivity, ρ, 10⁻⁶ times smaller than that of Earth, gave 10⁻⁶ times small skin depth validating the model scaling index. Images for evanescent and wave-ripple standing waves disturbed by normal, strike-slip and dip-slip conductive fault planes have been obtained using an aluminum plate. The co-circular contour map above the epicenter due to evanescence was pushed to the north east direction from the epicenter by the presence of ocean for the Loma Prieta earthquake, while to north direction for the Kobe earthquake. The intensity of EM ULF emissions for the Loma Prieta earthquake is discussed quantitatively.     

Tropical synoptic-scale wave disturbances over the western Pacific simulated by a global cloud-system resolving model

Lower-tropospheric tropical synoptic-scale disturbances (TSDs) are associated with severe weather systems in the Asian Monsoon region. Therefore, exact prediction of the development and behavior of TSDs using atmospheric general circulation models is expected to improve weather forecasting for this region. Recent state-of-the art global cloud-system resolving modeling approaches using a Nonhydrostatic Icosahedral Atmospheric Model (NICAM) may improve representation of TSDs. This study evaluates TSDs over the western Pacific in output from an Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP)-like control experiment using NICAM. Data analysis compared the simulated and observed fields. NICAM successfully simulates the average activity, three-dimensional structures, and characteristics of the TSDs during the Northern summer. The variance statistics and spectral analysis showed that the average activity of the simulated TSDs over the western Pacific during Northern summer broadly captures that of observations. The composite analysis revealed that the structures of the simulated TSDs resemble the observed TSDs to a large degree. The simulated TSDs exhibited a typical southeast- to northwest-oriented wave-train pattern that propagates northwestward from near the equator around 150 ^° E toward the southern coast of China. However, the location of the simulated wave train and wave activity center was displaced northward by approximately a few degrees of latitude from that in the observation. This displacement can be attributed to the structure and strength of the background basic flow in the simulated fields. Better representation of the background basic states is required for more successful simulation of TSDs.     

Synthesis of highly dense and fine-grained aggregates of mantle composites by vacuum sintering of nano-sized mineral powders

Synthesized mineral powders with particle size of <100 nm are vacuum sintered to obtain highly dense and fine-grained polycrystalline mantle composites: single phase aggregates of forsterite (iron-free), olivine (iron containing), enstatite and diopside; two-phase composites of forsterite + spinel and forsterite + periclase; and, three-phase composites of forsterite + enstatite + diopside. Nano-sized powders of colloidal SiO₂ and highly dispersed Mg(OH)₂ with particle size of ≤50 nm are used as chemical sources for MgO and SiO₂, which are common components for all of the aggregates. These powders are mixed with powders of CaCO₃, MgAl₂O_4, and Fe(CO₂CH₃)₂ to introduce mineral phases of diopside, spinel, and olivine to the aggregates, respectively. To synthesize highly dense composites through pressureless sintering, we find that calcined powders should be composed of particles that have: (1) fully or partially reacted to the desired minerals, (2) a size of <100 nm and (3) less propensity to coalesce. Such calcined powders are cold isostatically pressed and then vacuum sintered. The temperature and duration of the sintering process are tuned to achieve a balance between high density and fine grain size. Highly dense (i.e., porosity ≤1 vol%) polycrystalline mantle mineral composites with grain size of 0.3–1.1 μm are successfully synthesized with this method.     

Interdiffusion of Mg–Fe in olivine at 1,400–1,600 °C and 1 atm total pressure

The interdiffusion coefficient of Mg–Fe in olivine (D _Mg–Fe) was obtained at 1,400–1,600 °C at the atmospheric pressure with the oxygen fugacity of 10^?3.5–10^?2 Pa using a diffusion couple technique. The D _Mg–Fe shows the anisotropy (largest along the [001] direction and smallest along the [100] direction), and its activation energy (280–320 kJ/mol) is ~80–120 kJ/mol higher than that estimated at lower temperatures. The D _Mg–Fe at temperatures of >1,400 °C can be explained by the cation-vacancy chemistry determined both by the Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺ equilibrium and by the intrinsic point defect formation with the formation enthalpy of 220–270 kJ/mol depending on the thermodynamical model for the Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺ equilibrium in olivine. The formation enthalpy of 220–270 kJ/mol for the point defect (cation vacancy) in olivine is consistent with that estimated from the Mg self-diffusion in Fe-free forsterite. The increase in the activation energy of D _Mg–Fe at >1,400 °C is thus interpreted as the result of the transition of diffusion mechanism from the transition metal extrinsic domain to the intrinsic domain at the atmospheric pressure.     

Bulk density effects on soil hydrologic and thermal characteristics: A numerical investigation

Soil bulk density (ρ_b) is commonly treated as static in studies of land surface dynamics. Magnitudes of errors associated with this assumption are largely unknown. Our objectives were to (a) quantify ρ_b effects on soil hydrologic and thermal properties and (b) evaluate effects of ρ_b on surface energy balance and heat and water transfer. We evaluated 6 soil properties, volumetric heat capacity, thermal conductivity, soil thermal diffusivity, water retention characteristics, hydraulic conductivity, and vapour diffusivity, over a range of ρ_b, using a combination of 6 models. Thermal conductivity, water retention, hydraulic conductivity, and vapour diffusivity were most sensitive to ρ_b, each changing by fractions greater than the associated fractional changes in ρ_b. A 10% change in ρ_b led to 10–11% change in thermal conductivity, 6–11% change in saturated and residual water content, 49–54% change in saturated hydraulic conductivity, and 80% change in vapour diffusivity. Subsequently, 3 field seasons were simulated with a numerical model (HYDRUS‐1D) for a range of ρ_b values. When ρ_b increased 25% (from 1.2 to 1.5 Mg m^?3), soil temperature variation decreased by 2.1 °C in shallow layers and increased by 1 °C in subsurface layers. Surface water content differed by 0.02 m³ m^?3 for various ρ_b values during drying events but differences mostly disappeared in the subsurface. Matric potential varied by >100 m of water. Surface energy balance showed clear trends with ρ_b. Latent heat flux decreased 6%, sensible heat flux increased 9%, and magnitude of ground heat flux varied by 18% (with a 25% ρ_b increase). Transient ρ_b impacted surface conditions and fluxes, and clearly, it warrants consideration in field and modelling investigations.     

Sulfur isotope composition of putative primary troilite in chondrules from Bishunpur and Semarkona

The sulfur isotopic compositions of putative primary troilite grains within 15 ferromagnesian chondrules (10 FeO-poor and 5 FeO-rich chondrules) in the least metamorphosed ordinary chondrites, Bishunpur and Semarkona, have been measured by ion microprobe. Some troilite grains are located inside metal spherules within chondrules. Since such an occurrence is unlikely to be formed by secondary sulfidization processes in the solar nebula or on parent bodies, those troilites are most likely primary, having survived chondrule-forming high-temperature events. If they are primary, they may be the residues of evaporation at high temperatures during chondrule formation and may have recorded mass-dependent isotopic fractionations. However, the supposed primary troilites measured in this study do not show any significant sulfur isotopic fractionations (<1 ‰/amu) relative to large troilite grains in matrix. Among other chondrule troilites that we measured, only one (BI-CH22) apparently has a small excess of heavy isotopes (2.7 ± 1.4 ‰/amu) consistent with isotopic fractionation during evaporation. All other grains have isotopic fractionations of <1 ‰/amu. Because sulfur is so volatile that evaporation during chondrule formation is probably inevitable, non-Rayleigh evaporation most likely explains the lack of isotopic fractionation in putative primary troilite inside chondrules. Evaporation through the surrounding silicate melt would have suppressed the isotopic fractionation after silicate dust grains melted. At lower temperatures below extensive melting of silicates, a heating rate of >10⁴-10⁶ K/h would be required to avoid a large degree of sulfur isotopic fractionation in the chondrule precursors. This heating rate may provide a new constraint on the chondrule formation processes.