Non-destructive infrared analyses: a method for provenance analyses of sandstones

Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy) is commonly applied in the laboratory for mineral analyses in addition to XRD. Because such technical efforts are time and cost consuming, we present an infrared-based mobile method for non-destructive mineral and provenance analyses of sandstones. IR spectroscopy is based on activating chemical bonds. By irradiating a mineral mixture, special bonds are activated to vibrate depending on the bond energy (resonance vibration). Accordingly, the energy of the IR spectrum will be reduced thereby generating an absorption spectrum. The positions of the absorption maxima within the spectral region indicate the type of the bonds and in many cases identify minerals containing these bonds. The non-destructive reflection spectroscopy operates in the near infrared region (NIR) and can detect all common clay minerals as well as sulfates, hydroxides and carbonates. The spectra produced have been interpreted by computer using digital mineral libraries that have been especially collected for sandstones. The comparison of all results with XRD, RFA and interpretations of thin sections demonstrates impressively the accuracy and reliability of this method. Not only are different minerals detectable, but also differently ordered kaolinites and varieties of illites can be identified by the shape and size of the absorption bands. Especially clay minerals and their varieties in combination with their relative contents form the characteristic spectra of sandstones. Other components such as limonite, hematite and amorphous silica also influence the spectra. Sandstones, similar in colour and texture, often can be identified by their characteristic reflectance spectra. Reference libraries with more than 60 spectra of important German sandstones have been created to enable entirely computerized interpretations and identifications of these dimension stones. The analysis of infrared spectroscopy results is demonstrated with examples of different sandstones used as dimension stones. All analyses have been done with the “portable infrared mineral analyser” (PIMA) of Integrated Spectronics Pty Ltd. at the Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe in Berlin. This spectrometer has been designed to be light, portable and easy to handle. Investigations can be performed without any sample preparation for complete buildings as well as at small samples with diameters up to about one centimeter. Analyses of pulverized samples and granules are also possible. Consequently, infrared reflectance spectroscopy provides a reliable working, non-destructive technique to identify and characterize sandstones used for buildings and monuments.     

Late Palaeozoic red beds elucidate fluvial architectures preserving large woody debris in the seasonal tropics of central Pangaea

Fluvial red beds containing anatomically preserved large woody debris shed new light on seasonally dry biomes of the Pennsylvanian–Permian transition and elucidate the concurrence of river depositional systems and vegetation. As a result, the occurrence, distribution and preservation of petrified large woody debris accumulations are considered crucial to understanding the role of arborescent vegetation in shaping fluvial environments. This study reports sizeable silicified trunks and corresponding fluvial architectures from the uppermost Pennsylvanian (upper Gzhelian) Siebigerode Formation (Kyffhäuser, central Germany). The origin, taphonomy and depositional environment of the fossil woods are elucidated by using a multidisciplinary approach including geological mapping, lithofacies analysis, sediment petrography, wood anatomical studies and microstructure analyses. Results reflect the gradual burial of a gentle basement elevation by sand-bed to gravel-bed braided rivers at the north-western margin of the perimontane Saale Basin. Facies architectures resulted from a complex interplay of syndepositional tectonics, repeated palaeorelief rejuvenation, high-frequency channel avulsion, seasonally dry climate and woody debris–sediment interactions. The alluvial influx and cut-bank erosion recruited trunks from adjacent semi-riparian slope habitats vegetated by up to 40 m tall cordaitaleans and conifers. High discharge in wide braids facilitated uncongested transport of large woody debris. Trunk entombment and initial preservation resulted from grounding on barforms, anchoring by attached roots and subsequent burial. The post-depositional two-phase silicification was influenced by hydrothermal hematite mineralization and determined a selective wood preservation pattern known as ‘pointstone’. Large woody debris-induced sedimentary structures (‘LWDISS’) are introduced as a class of sediment structures formed by the biogenic impact on terrestrial deposition.