Biotite weathering and nutrient uptake by ectomycorrhizal fungus, Suillus tomentosus, in liquid-culture experiments

Ectomycorrhiza-forming fungi (EMF) alter the nutrient-acquisition capabilities of vascular plants, and may play an important role in mineral weathering and the partitioning of products of weathering in soils under nutrient-limited conditions. In this study, we isolated the weathering function of Suillus tomentosus in liquid-cultures with biotite micas incubated at room temperature. We hypothesized that the fungus would accelerate weathering by hyphal attachment to biotite surfaces and transmission of nutrient cations via direct exchange into the fungal biomass. We combined a mass-balance approach with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) to estimate weathering rates and study dissolution features on biotite surfaces. Weathering of biotite flakes was about 2-3 orders of magnitude faster in shaken liquid-cultures with fungus compared to shaken controls without fungus, but with added inorganic acids. Adding fungus in nonshaken cultures caused a higher dissolution rate than in inorganic pH controls without fungus, but it was not significantly faster than organic pH controls without fungus. The K⁺, Mg²⁺ and Fe²⁺ from biotite were preferentially partitioned into fungal biomass in the shaken cultures, while in the nonshaken cultures, K⁺ and Mg²⁺ was lost from biomass and Fe²⁺ bioaccumulated much less. Fungal hyphae attached to biotite surfaces, but no significant surface changes were detected by SEM. When cultures were shaken, the AFM images of basal planes appeared to be rougher and had abundant dissolution channels, but such channel development was minor in nonshaken conditions. Even under shaken conditions the channels only accounted for only 1/100 of the total dissolution rate of 2.7 × 10⁻¹⁰ mol of biotite m⁻² s⁻¹. The results suggest that fungal weathering predominantly occurred not by attachment and direct transfer of nutrients via hyphae, but because of the acidification of the bulk liquid by organic acids, fungal respiration (CO₂), and complexation of cations which accelerated dissolution of biotite. Results further suggest that both carbohydrate source (abundant here) and a host with which nutrients are exchanged (missing here) may be required for EMF to exert an important weathering effect in soils. Unsaturated conditions and physical dispersal of nutrient-rich minerals in soils may also confer a benefit for hyphal growth and attachment, and promote the attachment-mediated weathering which has been observed elsewhere on soil mineral surfaces.     

Comparison between earthquake magni-tudes determined by China seismograph network and US seismograph network (II): Surface wave magnitude

Introduction Earthquake magnitude is the most common measure of an earthquake′s size,and is one of the basic parameters of an earthquake.There are three most familiar scales of earthquake magnitude:ML(local earthquake magnitude),MS(surface wave magnitude)and mB/mb(body wave magni-tude).Richter(1935)introduced ML when studying earthquakes in Southern California.In1945,Gutenberg(1945a)put forward surface wave magnitude scale to determine earthquake magnitude(MS)using surface waves(20s)of s…     

Temperature response to future urbanization and climate change

This study examines the impact of future urban expansion on local near-surface temperature for Sydney (Australia) using a future climate scenario (A2). The Weather Research and Forecasting model was used to simulate the present (1990–2009) and future (2040–2059) climates of the region at 2-km spatial resolution. The standard land use of the model was replaced with a more accurate dataset that covers the Sydney area. The future simulation incorporates the projected changes in the urban area of Sydney to account for the expected urban expansion. A comparison between areas with projected land use changes and their surroundings was conducted to evaluate how urbanization and global warming will act together and to ascertain their combined effect on the local climate. The analysis of the temperature changes revealed that future urbanization will strongly affect minimum temperature, whereas little impact was detected for maximum temperature. The minimum temperature changes will be noticeable throughout the year. However, during winter and spring these differences will be particularly large and the increases could be double the increase due to global warming alone at 2050. Results indicated that the changes were mostly due to increased heat capacity of urban structures and reduced evaporation in the city environment.     

Three-dimensional velocity inversion of teleseismic P-wave residuals from the telemetric network of the G.D.R.

Residuals of teleseismic P-wave arrival times at the CIPE network were used to estimate the three-dimensional velocity structure of the upper mantle by means of the inversion procedure described by Aki et al. (1977). Two models with different depth ranges (233 and 500 km, respectively) have been determined. They refer to the upper mantle beneath the Central European part of the Variscian fold-belt and its transition to the East European platform north of it. Both models reveal a lateral velocity increase within the upper mantle. It is directed to the northeast within the lithosphere and at least a part of the asthenosphere, and in a more northerly direction at greater depth. Furthermore, there seems to exist a local inhomogeneity west of Prague at a depth of some 200 km.     

Comparison between earthquake magnitudes determined by China seismograph network and US seismograph network （Ⅱ）： Surface wave magnitude

By using orthogonal regression method, a systematic comparison is made between surface wave magnitudes determined by Institute of Geophysics of China Earthquake Administration （IGCEA） and National Earthquake Information Center of US Geological Survey （USGS/NEIC） on the basis of observation data collected by the two institutions between 1983 and 2004. A formula is obtained which reveals the relationship between surface wave magnitudes determined by China seismograph network and US seismograph network. The result shows that, as different calculation formulae and observational instruments are used, surface wave magnitude determined by IGCEA is generally greater by 0.2 than that determined by NEIC： for M=3.5-4.5 earthquakes, it is greater by 0.3; for M=5.0-6.5 earthquakes, it is greater by 0.2; and for M≥7.0 earthquakes, it is greater by no more than 0.1.     

Comparison between earthquake magnitudes determined by China seismograph network and US seismograph networks (I): Body wave magnitude

Introduction Gutenberg (1945a, b) introduced body wave magnitude based on P, PP and S waves (with a period of 0.5~12.0 s) of teleseismic events. Body wave magnitude includes mb determined with short-period seismograph and mB determined with middle- and long-period seismographs. Some-times it is written as m, which is referred to as unified earthquake magnitude. mb represents earth-quake magnitude measured with body wave amplitude around 1 s, while mB represents earthquake magnitude measured …     

Sensitivity analysis of 18 different potential evapotranspiration models to observed climatic change at German climate stations

Potential evapotranspiration models very often are important part of hydrological catchment models to calculate potential evapotranspiration (PET) which then is used to estimate actual evapotranspiration considering the soil moisture status. As many different approaches exist, the question arises in which way the choice of the PET model affects the impact of climate change on the calculated water balance? Therefore, 18 different PET models were compared with respect to their sensitivity to observed climate change. Long-term climate data of six German climate stations were used to identify changes in the climate data itself and changes in the calculated PET. The results show that all investigated PET models are sensitive to significant trends in climate data. However, it is also shown that all models show different sensitivities, and that the sensitivities cannot be grouped in terms of different types of PET models such as the aerodynamic concept, radiation or temperature based approaches and combination equations. Predominantly, the variability within a group of models of the same type is comparable to the variability between different model types. Therefore it can be concluded that PET models should be validated in a regional context before they are applied to a certain region within a climate change study despite the poor availability of long-term PET measurements.     

IASPEI新标准宽频带震级m_B

1935年Richter提出了地方震震级ML,10年后Gutenberg（1945a,1945b,1945c）建议将震级概念扩展到在远震距离上测量体波和面波的最大振幅,从而第一次使得有可能在全球尺度上可比较地估计地震的大小（Gutenberg and Richter,1949,1954）。另外,体波允许对各种深度的地震测量震级。最初,测定的远震震级大多在6级以上,这些地震都是在中～长周期位移记录图上记录的,地震仪的上拐角周期在10～20s左右（Kanamori,1988）。相应地,