An empirical model for transient crater growth in granular targets based on direct observations

The present paper describes observations of crater growth up to the time of transient crater formation and presents a new empirical model for transient crater growth as a function of time. Polycarbonate projectiles were impacted vertically into soda-lime glass sphere targets using a single-stage light-gas gun. Using a new technique with a laser sheet illuminating the target [Barnouin-Jha, O.S., Yamamoto, S., Toriumi, T., Sugita, S., Matsui, T., 2007. Non-intrusive measurements of the crater growth. Icarus, 188, 506-521], we measured the temporal change in diameter of crater cavities (diameter growth). The rate of increase in diameter at early times follows a power law relation, but the data at later times (before the end of transient crater formation) deviates from the power law relation. In addition, the power law exponent at early times and the degree of deviation from a power law at later times depend on the target. In order to interpret these features, we proposed to modify Maxwell’s Z-model under the assumption that the strength of the excavation flow field decreases exponentially with time. We also derived a diameter growth model as: d(t)∝[1-exp(-βt)]^γ, where d(t) is the apparent diameter of the crater cavity at time t after impact, and β and γ are constants. We demonstrated that the diameter growth model could represent well the experimental data for various targets with different target material properties, such as porosity or angle of repose. We also investigated the diameter growth for a dry sand target, which has been used to formulate previous scaling relations. The obtained results showed that the dry sand target has larger degree of deviation from a power law, indicating that the target material properties of the dry sand target have a significant effect on diameter growth, especially at later times. This may suggest that the previously reported scaling relations should be reexamined in order to account for the late-stage behavior with the effect of target material properties.     

The Moon 35 years after Apollo: What's left to learn?

With the cancellation of the Apollo program after Apollo 17 returned from the Moon in 1972, the focus of NASA switched to other areas of the Solar System. Study of the Moon did continue through analysis of the returned samples and remotely sensed data sets (both orbital and surface), as well as through Earth-based telescopic studies. In the 1990s, new orbital data were obtained from several missions (fly-by and orbital), the first being Galileo that allowed the lunar farside to be mapped, followed by global mapping by the Clementine and Lunar Prospector missions.Interest in the Moon started to increase at the beginning of the 21st century as other nations focused their space exploration programs on the Moon. The speech by President Bush in January 2004 put the Moon back into the critical exploration path for NASA, paving the way for humans to return to the lunar surface by 2020. This return will be critical for developing technologies and protocols for the eventual human exploration of other parts of the solar system. At the time of writing (June 2008), the SELENE/Kaguya mission (Japan and Chang’e-1 (China) are orbiting the Moon, with Chandrayaan-1 (India) and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (USA) being scheduled to launch later in 2008.The past (and present) exploration of the Moon begs the question “what's left to be done?” With the renewed focus on the Moon, now that it is on the pathway for the exploration of Mars (and beyond) a similar question has been raised - what should the astronauts do on the Moon? The publication of the New Views of the Moon book [Jolliff et al., 2006. New Views of the Moon, Reviews in Mineralogy, vol. 60. American Mineralogical Society, 721pp] highlighted a number of important scientific questions that remain unanswered as well as posing many more on the basis of the currently available data. These questions resonated in three Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG) reports pertinent to this discussion, which were also published (on line) during 2006 (http://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag), and in the National Research Council of the National Academies [2007. The Scientific Context for Exploration of the Moon. National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 112pp] report entitled “The Scientific Context for Exploration of the Moon”. This paper synthesizes these recent studies, along with those from the 1980s and 1990s, to emphasize the lunar science questions that remain unanswered. In addition, it summarizes the missions already flown to the Moon along with those that are planned in order to give the reader an idea of exactly what lunar science has been and will be conducted in the hope that it will inspire proposals for missions to address the outstanding science questions.     

高低空急流在云南大范围暴雨过程中的作用及共同特征

通过对1980—1991年出现的46次云南全省性大范围暴雨过程的主要影响系统进行分型,找出云南暴雨的主要影响系统,利用美国国家环境预测中心NCEP再分析资料,对暴雨出现次数最多的11次冷锋切变型全省性大范围暴雨过程进行合成分析,揭示了在冷锋切变环流形势下云南大范围暴雨发生前后对流层高低空急流或强风速带的演变特征及其与大范围暴雨发生之间的关系,找出了它们的共同特征,并提取造成云南暴雨的强信号,以期对今后的暴雨预报提供依据。     

Comparison of Meteoroid Flux Models for Near Earth Space

Over the last decade several new models for the sporadic interplanetary meteoroid flux have been developed. These include the Divine-Staubach and the Dikarev model. They typically cover mass ranges from 10⁻¹⁸ g to 1 g and are applicable for model specific Sun distance ranges between 0.1 AU and 20 AU Near 1 AU averaged fluxes (over direction and velocities) for all these models are tuned to the well established interplanetary model by Grün et al. However, in many respects these models differ considerably. Examples are the velocity and directional distributions and the assumed meteoroid sources. In this paper flux predictions by the various models to Earth orbiting spacecraft are compared. Main differences are presented and analysed. The persisting differences even for near Earth space can be seen as surprising in view of the numerous ground based (optical and radar) and in situ (captured Inter Stellar Dust Particles, in situ detectors and analysis of retrieved hardware) measurements and simulations.     

Orbital and mission planning constraints for the deflection of NEOs impacting on Earth

This paper is the third in a series. Paper 1 presented the results of numerical modeling of deflections of NEOs in route of collision with the Earth. The model was applied to a variety of dynamical cases including both asteroidal and cometary NEOs. Paper 2 introduced the concept of “distributed deflection,” i.e., the possibility to provide the ΔV necessary to deflect an object with a succession of maneuvers each of which would have been insufficient per se to obtain the desired result. In both papers no assumptions were made on the physical composition and structure of the NEO, nor on the details of the possible deflection maneuvers from the point of view of mission analysis. Moreover, ΔV-plots were computed assuming only along-track impulses (both in the positive and negative directions), because it is easy to demonstrate that in general this is energetically the most favorable configuration. Also in the present paper no assumptions were made on the physical composition and structure of the NEO, even if order of magnitude considerations are made on the physical feasibility of a deflection, in terms of the internal strength of the NEO. We present here the results of an investigation on the mission requirements necessary to deflect an object (or contribute to a succession of deflecting maneuvers) in terms of accessibility of the spacecraft terminal orbit from Earth with the current launchers.     

Ejecta from impacts at 0.2-2.3 m/s in low gravity

Collisions between planetary ring particles and in some protoplanetary disk environments occur at speeds below 10 m/s. The particles involved in these low-velocity collisions have negligible gravity and may be made of or coated with smaller dust grains and aggregates. We undertook microgravity impact experiments to better understand the dissipation of energy and production of ejecta in these collisions. Here we report the results of impact experiments of solid projectiles into beds of granular material at impact velocities from 0.2 to 2.3 m/s performed under near-weightless conditions on the NASA KC-135 Weightless Wonder V. Impactors of various densities and radii of 1 and 2 cm were launched into targets of quartz sand, JSC-1 lunar regolith simulant, and JSC-Mars-1 martian regolith simulant. Most impacts were at normal or near-normal incidence angles, though some impacts were at oblique angles. Oblique impacts led to much higher ejection velocities and ejecta masses than normal impacts. For normal incidence impacts, characteristic ejecta velocities increase with impactor kinetic energy, KE, as approximately KE^0.5. Ejecta masses could not be measured accurately due to the nature of the experiment, but qualitatively also increased with impactor kinetic energy. Some experiments were near the threshold velocity of 0.2 m/s identified in previous microgravity impact experiments as the minimum velocity needed to produce ejecta [Colwell, J.E., 2003. Icarus 164, 188-196], and the experimental scatter is large at these low speeds in the airplane experiment. A more precise exploration of the transition from low-ejecta-mass impacts to high-ejecta-mass impacts requires a longer and smoother period of reduced gravity. Coefficient of restitution measurements are not possible due to the varying acceleration of the airplane throughout the experiment.     

The shape distribution of asteroid families: Evidence for evolution driven by small impacts

A statistical analysis of brightness variability of asteroids reveals how their shapes evolve from elongated to rough spheroidal forms, presumably driven by impact-related phenomena. Based on the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Moving Object Catalog, we determined the shape distribution of 11,735 asteroids, with special emphasis on eight prominent asteroid families. In young families, asteroids have a wide range of shape elongations, implying fragmentation-formation. In older families we see an increasing number of rough spheroids, in agreement with the predictions of an impact-driven evolution. Old families also contain a group of moderately elongated members, which we suggest correspond to higher-density, more impact-resistant cores of former fragmented asteroids that have undergone slow shape erosion. A few percent of asteroids have very elongated shapes, and can either be young fragments or tidally reshaped bodies. Our results confirm that the majority of asteroids are gravitationally bound “rubble piles.”     

Assessing protected area’s carbon stocks and ecological structure at regional-scale using GEDI lidar

Protected areas (PAs) serve as a critical strategy for protecting natural resources, conserving biodiversity, and mitigating climate change. While there is a critical need to guide area-based conservation efforts, a systematic assessment of PA effectiveness for storing carbon stocks has not been possible due to the lack of globally consistent forest biomass data. In this study, we present a new methodology utilizing forest structural information and aboveground biomass density (AGBD) obtained from the Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) mission. We compare PAs with similar, unprotected forests obtained through statistical matching to assess differences in carbon storage and forest structure. We also assess matching outcomes for a robust and minimally biased way to quantify PA efficacy. We find that all analyzed PAs in Tanzania possess higher biomass densities than their unprotected counterfactuals (24.4% higher on average). This is also true for other forest structure metrics, including tree height, canopy cover, and plant area index (PAI). We also find that community-governed PAs are the most effective category of PAs at preserving forest structure and AGBD – often outperforming those managed by international or national entities. In addition, PAs designated under more than one entity perform better than the PAs with a single designation, especially those with multiple international designations. Finally, our findings suggest that smaller PAs may be more effective for conservation, depending on levels of connectivity. Taken together, these findings support the designation of PAs as an effective means for forest management with considerable potential to protect forest ecosystems and achieve long-term climate goals.     

Community forest management in Indonesia: Avoided deforestation in the context of anthropogenic and climate complexities

Community forest management has been identified as a win-win option for reducing deforestation while improving the welfare of rural communities in developing countries. Despite considerable investment in community forestry globally, systematic evaluations of the impact of these policies at appropriate scales are lacking. We assessed the extent to which deforestation has been avoided as a result of the Indonesian government’s community forestry scheme, Hutan Desa (Village Forest). We used annual data on deforestation rates between 2012 and 2016 from two rapidly developing islands: Sumatra and Kalimantan. The total area of Hutan Desa increased from 750 km² in 2012 to 2500 km² in 2016. We applied a spatial matching approach to account for biophysical variables affecting deforestation and Hutan Desa selection criteria. Performance was assessed relative to a counterfactual likelihood of deforestation in the absence of Hutan Desa tenure. We found that Hutan Desa management has successfully achieved avoided deforestation overall, but performance has been increasingly variable through time. Hutan Desa performance was influenced by anthropogenic and climatic factors, as well as land use history. Hutan Desa allocated on watershed protection forest or limited production forest typically led to a less avoided deforestation regardless of location. Conversely, Hutan Desa granted on permanent or convertible production forest had variable performance across different years and locations. The amount of rainfall during the dry season in any given year was an important climatic factor influencing performance. Extremely dry conditions during drought years pose additional challenges to Hutan Desa management, particularly on peatland, due to increased vulnerability to fire outbreaks. This study demonstrates how the performance of Hutan Desa in avoiding deforestation is fundamentally affected by biophysical and anthropogenic circumstances over time and space. Our study improves understanding on where and when the policy is most effective with respect to deforestation, and helps identify opportunities to improve policy implementation. This provides an important first step towards evaluating the overall effectiveness of this policy in achieving both social and environmental goals.     

红阳猕猴桃种植基地自动站温度对其生长季的影响

利用贵州西部发耳、米箩、猴场、蟠龙、鸡场、顺场、杨梅、勺米共8个红阳猕猴桃基地2013—2015年物候期观测资料、猴场基地红阳猕猴桃果实生长期生长速率及其产量资料以及各基地2005—2015年温度资料,运用C值逼近法和决定系数(R~2)最大化法拟合红阳猕猴桃果实生长曲线,采用相关性分析方法,分析了温度对红阳猕猴桃物候期的影响。结果表明,红阳猕猴桃各个物候期出现的时间及其日数与温度变化具有一致性,但各个物候期对温度的响应表现出不一致。红阳猕猴桃开花期对平均温度、平均最高温度的响应最为明显,其相关性达到极显著水平(p0.001)。平均最高温度对果实生长期日数的影响呈负相关性,其相关性达到极显著水平(p0.005)。果实生长量的75.69%受时间影响,24.31%受气候因素影响。