Fractionation of the noble metals by physical processes

During partial melting in the earth’s mantle, the noble metals become fractionated. Os, Ir, Ru, and Rh tend to remain in the mantle residue whereas Pt, Pd, and Re behave mildly incompatible and are sequestered to the silicate melt. There is consensus that sulfide plays a role in the fractionation process; the major noble metal repository in the mantle is sulfide, and most primitive mantle melts are sulfide-saturated when they leave their mantle sources. However, with sulfide–silicate partitioning, the fractionation cannot be modeled properly. All sulfide–silicate partition coefficients are so extremely high that a silicate melt segregating from a mantle source with residual sulfide should be largely platinum-group elements free. We offer a physical alternative to sulfide–silicate chemical partitioning and provide a mechanism of generating a noble metal-rich melt from a sulfide-saturated source: Because sulfide is at least partially molten at asthenospheric temperature, it will behave physically incompatible during melt segregation, and a silicate melt segregating from a mantle residue will entrain molten residual sulfide in suspension and incorporate it in the basaltic pool melt. The noble metal abundances of a basalt then become independent of sulfide–silicate chemical partitioning. They reflect the noble metal abundances in the drained sulfide fraction as well as the total amount of sulfide entrained. Contrary to convention, we suggest that a fertile, sulfide-rich mantle source has more potential to generate a noble metal-enriched basaltic melt than a refractory mantle source depleted by previous partial melting events.     

Contamination of some reservoirs and lakes in Republic of Bulgaria by microcystins

This paper presents the results from analyses of water samples from 15 Bulgarian reservoirs and lakes for detection of microcystins presence by high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to a ultraviolet (UV) and photo diode array (PDA) detector. In 3 of the studied drinking water reservoirs cyanobacterial blooms were not detected. Cyanobacterial blooms were observed in 6 of 12 investigated water bodies used for fishing and water sports. Microcystis was the dominant cyanobacterial genus. The concentration of total microcystins in the biomasses ranged from 8 to 1070 μg g^–1 (d.w.). Microcystin‐LR and microcystin‐RR were the predominant microcystins, followed by microcystin‐YR. Presence of dissolved microcystins was obtained in one water sample with concentration of total microcystins 1.64 μg L^–1. Presence of microcystin‐LF and ‐LW or unknown peaks possessing characteristic microcystin‐like UV‐spectra were not detected. Those first results for occurrence of microcystins in some Bulgarian reservoirs and lakes are a contribution to the knowledge on their distribution.     

Classification problems of samples of finite mixtures of compositions

A discriminant technique based on mixture models is presented to be applied when observations are a sample of a mixture of compositions with each component following an additive logistic normal distribution on the d-dimensional simplex. The efficiency of this discriminant technique is compared empirically with the efficiency of the standard discriminant technique based on logcontrast. Simulated compositional data and a real dataset are used to carry out these comparisons.     

Seismic analysis and distribution of a bottom-simulating reflector (BSR) in the Chilean margin offshore of Valdivia (40° S)

Multi-channel seismic (MCS) reflection data recorded offshore from Valdivia (40° S), in the Chilean margin, were processed to obtain a seismic image to establish structural characteristics and relate them to the presence of the bottom-simulating reflector (BSR). Seismic structure velocity of the BSR was determined using 1-D forward modeling. Recorded seismograms for two representative common mid-point (CMP) gathers were compared with synthetics, using different physical parameters to fit the waveforms. Our results confirm the presence of gas hydrates above the BSR. The BSR spatial continuity appears to be either interrupted or irregular due to the presence of faults. Tectonic movements can change the gas hydrate stability zone and consequently the BSR disappears or becomes weaker. Structural and topographic factors, differences in concentration, vertical distribution characteristics and internal structure of gas hydrates can influence BSR amplitude behavior. Variability in the concentration, volume, and extra supply of free gas coming from faults could be the main factors in the change of BSR amplitudes. The inclusion of the attenuation factor in the modeling supports the existence of free gas below the BSR. It is possible that the free gas below the BSR is distributed in bubbles or “bags”.     

Support Vector Machines for Classification of?Aggregates by Means of IR-Spectra

The increasing physical and technical demands placed on construction materials, especially as they are being used more and more up to the limits of their mechanical strength, has led the aggregates industry to search for more efficient methods of quality control. Information from theoretical work on rock spectra in near-infrared and mid-infrared light as well as achievements gained in signal processing can all be used to improve quality control in an economically acceptable manner. As engineering properties of aggregates are to a great extent determined by the petrological composition of the rock aggregates, the question is, whether a statistical classification rule for identification of rock aggregates can be developed. However, the classification of rocks is complicated by the fact that the optical behavior of minerals forming the rock often appears muted. In addition, minor constituents may dominate the spectrum. Furthermore, the relevant spectra form high dimensional data that are extremely difficult to analyze statistically, especially when curves are very similar. In this paper, support vector machines for classification of rock spectra are investigated, since they are appropriate in classifying highly dimensional data such as spectra.     

Factors influencing the release of dissolved organic carbon and dissolved forms of nitrogen from a small upland headwater during autumn runoff events

We identify and assess the relative importance of the principal factors influencing the release of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and dissolved forms of nitrogen (N) from a small upland headwater dominated by podzolic soils during a sequence of autumn runoff events. We achieve this by subjecting high‐resolution hydrometeorological and hydrochemical data to an R‐mode principal component factor analysis and a stepwise multivariate regression analysis. We find that the release of DOC and N is influenced by four principal factors, namely event magnitude, soil water flow through the Bs horizon, the length of time since the soil profile was last flushed, and rewetting of the H horizon. The release of DOC and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) is most strongly influenced by the combination of event magnitude and soil water flow through the Bs horizon, and to a lesser extent by the length of time since the soil profile was last flushed. Rewetting of the H horizon also influences the release of DOC, but this is not the case for DON. The release of nitrate (NO₃‐N) is most strongly influenced by the combination of the length of time since the soil profile was last flushed and rewetting of the H horizon, and to a lesser extent by event magnitude. Soil water flow through the Bs horizon does not influence the release of NO₃‐N. We argue that the mechanisms by which the above factors influence the release of DOC and N are probably strongly associated with moisture‐dependent biological activity, which governs the turnover of organic matter in the soil and limits the availability of NO₃‐N in the soil for leaching. We conclude that the release of DOC and N from upland headwaters dominated by podzolic soils is largely controlled by the variable interaction of hydrometeorological factors and moisture‐dependent biological processes, and that a shift in climate towards drier summers and wetter winters may result in the release of DOC and N becoming increasingly variable and more episodic in the future. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Monitoring Changes of Ice Streams Using Time Series of Satellite-Altimetry-Based Digital Terrain Models

The Antarctic Ice Sheet plays a major role in the global system, and the large ice streams discharging into the circumpolar sea represent its gateways to the world's oceans. Satellite radar altimeter data provide an opportunity for mapping surface elevation at kilometer-resolution with meter-accuracy. Geostatistical methods have been developed for the analysis of these data. Applications to Seasat data and data from the Geosat Exact Repeat Mission indicate that the grounding line of Lambert Glacier/Amery Ice Shelf, the largest ice stream in East Antarctica, has advanced 10–12 km between 1978 and 1987–89. The objectives of this paper are to explore possibilities and limitations of satellite-altimetry-based mapping to capture changes for shorter time windows and for smaller areas, and to investigate some methodological aspects of the data analysis. We establish that one season of radar altimeter data is sufficient for constructing a map. This allows study of interannual variation and is the key for a time-series analysis approach to study changes in ice streams. Maps of the lower Lambert Glacier and the entire Amery Ice Shelf are presented for austral winters 1978, 1987, 1988, and 1989. As a first step toward understanding the dynamics of the ice-stream/ice-shelf system, elevation changes are calculated for grounded ice, the grounding zone, and floating ice. In the absence of (sufficient) surface gravity control for the Lambert Glacier/Amery Ice Shelf area, altimetry-based maps may facilitate improvement of geoid models as they provide constraints on the terrain correction in the inverse gravimetric problem.     

Post-collisional extension of the East Greenland Caledonides: a geophysical perspective

Crustal extension during and following continental collision is well documented in the Arctic Caledonian fold belt. However, models for the post-collisional extension of the Caledonides are mainly based on geoscientific data from Scandinavia. For a more complete understanding of the evolution of the Caledonides, knowledge of the crustal structure of East Greenland is vital. Seismic and gravity studies have revealed a pronounced Moho topography and a west-dipping lower crustal reflector beneath the fjord region of East Greenland. These deep crustal structures are related to Late Caledonian extensional structures at the surface. The observations can be satisfactorily explained by applying simple shear or eduction models proposed for upper crustal extension in Scandinavia to the complementing lower crustal structures in East Greenland. However, exhumation of the Caledonian Northeast Greenland eclogite province cannot be accomplished by these models. Instead, a synthesis of geoscientific data has shown marked differences in the crustal structure of East Greenland north and south of about 76°N, indicating a different crustal evolution of the northern and southern parts of the East Greenland Caledonides.     

Low‐frequency modulation and trend of the relationship between ENSO and precipitation along the northern to centre Peruvian Pacific coast

The relationship between El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and precipitation along the Peruvian Pacific coast is investigated over 1964–2011 on the basis of a variety of indices accounting for the different types of El Niño events and atmospheric and oceanographic manifestations of the interannual variability in the tropical Pacific. We show the existence of fluctuations in the ENSO/precipitation relationship at decadal timescales that are associated with the ENSO property changes over the recent decades. Several indices are considered in order to discriminate the influence of the two types of El Niño, namely, the eastern Pacific El Niño and the central Pacific El Niño, as well as the influence of large‐scale atmospheric variability associated to the Madden and Julian Oscillation, and of regional oceanic conditions. Three main periods are identified that correspond to the interleave periods between the main climatic transitions over 1964–2011, i.e. the shifts of the 1970s and the 2000s, over which ENSO experiences significant changes in its characteristics. We show that the relationship between ENSO and precipitation along the western coast of Peru has experienced significant decadal change. Whereas El Niño events before 2000 lead to increased precipitation, in the 2000s, ENSO is associated to drier conditions. This is due to the change in the main ENSO pattern after 2000 that is associated to cooler oceanic conditions off Peru during warm events (i.e. central Pacific El Niño). Our analysis also indicates that the two extreme El Niño events of 1982/1983 and 1997/1998 have overshadowed actual trends in the relationship between interannual variability in the tropical Pacific and precipitation along the coast of Peru. Overall, our study stresses on the complexity of the hydrological cycle on the western side of the Andes with regard to its relationship with the interannual to decadal variability in the tropical Pacific. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.