Subglacial drainage system changes of the Gulkana Glacier,Alaska: discharge and sediment load observations and modelling

Hydrological characteristics of englacial and subglacial drainage systems in Gulkana Glacier, Alaska, were examined by analysing temporal variations of discharge and sediment load in the proglacial Phelan Creek in 2001. From data plots on semi‐log paper, it appeared appropriate to separate both discharge and sediment load into fast and slow components. The two components were possibly produced by two different drainage systems: an englacial and subglacial, ‘channellized’ system in the ablation zone, and a subglacial, ‘distributed’ system in the accumulation zone. The data indicate the occurrence of an event during which part of the ‘distributed’ drainage system changed into the ‘channellized’ drainage system. The daily time‐series of discharge and sediment load were represented using a tank model. In the model, the drainage from an additional tank was added, supposing that a subglacial reservoir full of water and sediment collapsed slowly when the subglacial drainage system changed from distributed to channellized. The simulation with the collapsed tank gave much more reasonable results than those with no collapsed tank. The contribution of the collapsed tank to total sediment load is 24%, which is much larger than 9% to total discharge. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evidence for ocean water invasion into the Chicxulub crater at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary

Abstract The possibility of ocean water invasion into the Chicxulub crater following the impact at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary was investigated based on examination of an impactite between approximately 794.63 and 894.94 m in the Yaxcopoil‐1 (Yax‐1) core. The presence of cross lamination in the uppermost part of the impactite suggests the influence of an ocean current at least during the sedimentation of this interval. Abundant occurrence of nannofossils of late Campanian to early Maastrichtian age in the matrices of samples from the upper part of the impactite suggests that the carbonate sediments deposited on the inner rim margin and outside the crater were eroded and transported into the crater most likely by ocean water that invaded the crater after its formation. The maximum grain size of limestone lithics and vesicular melt fragments, and grain and bulk chemical compositions show a cyclic variation in the upper part of the impactite. The upward fining grain size and the absence of erosional contact at the base of each cycle suggest that the sediments were derived from resuspension of units elsewhere in the crater, most likely by high energy currents association with ocean water invasion.     

Anomalous Large Scavenging of 230Th and 231Pa Controlled by Particle Composition in the Northwestern North Pacific

We report the role of particle composition and lateral particle movement that influences the oceanic distribution of ²³¹Pa and ²³⁰Th. Settling particles were collected during sediment trap experiments. These and surface sediments were obtained from five stations along 38 to 44°N in the northwestern North Pacific. The high total mass flux and seasonal variations in the marginal area of the western North Pacific are controlled by the supply of lithogenic materials and primary productivity. The high content of the lithogenic material in the settling particles in this area contributes to ²³⁰Th_ex fluxes that exceed the local rate of supply. The lithogenic materials are important as a carrier of ²³⁰Th and contribute to the fractionation between ²³⁰Th and ²³¹Pa in the ocean, as the ²³¹Pa_ex/²³⁰Th_ex ratio in the settling particles decreases with increasing ²³²Th concentration. The ²³¹Pa_ex/²³⁰Th_ex ratio in the settling particles collected in the abyssal basin decreases with water depth, which indicates that lateral transport of the lithogenic particles from the marginal area and/or shallower depth plays an important role in determining the ²³¹Pa_ex/²³⁰Th_ex ratio in a population of settling particles and remineralization. This indicates that lateral redistribution of particles and sediment focusing influence the ²³¹Pa_ex/²³⁰Th_ex ratios in surface sediments. Thus, the observations reported here mean that the use of the sediment ²³¹Pa_ex/²³⁰Th_ex ratio as a paleoproductivity proxy will be problematic in the northwestern North Pacific. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

On the seasonal variations of the atmospheric electric elements

Summary The air-earth current density in the stratosphere, the columnar resistance derived from the measurements of conductivity, and the ionospheric potential were investigated. The data were obtained by radiosonde ascents during the period of 1957–1967.It was found that the local horizontal visibility at the surface is related to the air-earth current density in the stratosphere, and it is expected that the air-earth current density has a seasonal variation. Statistical results show that indeed the air-earth current has a pronounced seasonal variation, high in winter and low in summer. The columnar resistance has also a seasonal variation, reverse to the variation of the air-earth current.The percentage time variation of the air-earth current (1/i) (di/dt) was found to be twice as much as the percentage time variation of the columnar resistance (1/R) (dR/dt) at the Tateno Observatory.The ionospheric potential, deduced from the measurements of the potential gradient by radiosonde ascents, shows no clear seasonal variation at Syowa-Base (Antarctica). Following Ohm's law, however, the above-mentioned results suggest that the seasonal variation of the ionospheric potential would exist on land.

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Zusammenfassung Die Vertikalstromdichte in der Stratosphäre, der Säulenwiderstand, berechnet aus Leitfähigkeitsmessungen, und das Ionosphärenpotential wurden untersucht. Die Messergebnisse wurden mittels Radiosonden im Jahrzehnt 1957–1967 erlangt.Es wurde festgestellt, dass die örtliche waagrechte Sichtweite am Erdboden mit der Vertikalstromdichte in der Stratosphäre korreliert ist, und dass erwartet werden muss, dass die Vertikalstromdichte einen jahreszeitlichen Gang aufweist. Tatsächlich lässt sich statistisch zeigen, dass ein solcher jahreszeitlicher Gang der Vertikalstromdichte besteht, mit einem Höchstwert im Winter und einem Mindestwert im Sommer. Auch der Säulenwiderstand zeigt einen jahreszeitlichen Gang, umgekehrt zu dem der Vertikalstromdichte.Die prozentuale zeitliche Änderung der Vertikalstromdichte (1/i) (di/dt) stellte sich als zweimal so gross heraus als die des Säulenwiderstandes (1/R) (dR/dt) gemessen am Observatorium zu Tateno.Wird das Ionosphärenpotential aus den Messungen des Potentialgefälles mit Radiosonden hergeleitet, so stellt sich bei den an der Syowa-Station in der Antarktik angestellten Messungen kein klarer Jahresgang heraus. Die hier zuvor erwähnten Ergebnisse, jedoch, führen zu der Annahme eines Jahresgangs des Ionosphärenpotentials über der genannten Station, wenn man das Ohm'sche Gesetz auf sie anwendet.

     

Direct application of compound-specific radiocarbon analysis of leaf waxes to establish lacustrine sediment chronology

This study demonstrates use of compound-specific radiocarbon analysis (CSRA) for dating Holocene lacustrine sediments from carbonate-hosted Ordy Pond, O‘ahu, Hawai‘i. Long-chain odd-numbered normal alkanes (n-alkanes), biomarkers characteristic of terrestrial higher plants, were ubiquitous in Ordy Pond sediments. The δ¹³C of individual n-alkanes ranged from −29.9 to −25.5‰, within the expected range for n-alkanes synthesized by land plants using the C₃ or C₄ carbon fixation pathway. The ¹⁴C ages of n-alkanes determined by CSRA showed remarkably good agreement with ¹⁴C dates of rare plant macrofossils obtained from nearby sedimentary horizons. In general, CSRA of n-alkanes successfully refined the age-control of the sediments. The sum of n-alkanes in each sample produced 70–170 μg of carbon (C), however, greater age errors were confirmed for samples containing less than 80 μg of C. The ¹⁴C age of n-alkanes from one particular sedimentary horizon was 4,155 years older than the value expected from the refined age-control, resulting in an apparent and arguable age discrepancy. Several lines of evidence suggest that this particular sample was contaminated by introduction of ¹⁴C-free C during preparative capillary gas chromatography. This study simultaneously highlighted the promising potential of CSRA for paleo-applications and the risks of contamination associated with micro-scale ¹⁴C measurement of individual organic compounds.     

Numerical identification of tsunami boulders and estimation of local tsunami size at Ibaruma reef of Ishigaki Island,Japan

Tsunami boulders deposited along the coast constitute important geological evidence for paleotsunami activity. However, boulders can also be deposited by large storm waves. Although several sedimentological and theoretical methods have been proposed to differentiate tsunami and storm wave affected boulders, no appropriate numerical method exists for their differentiation. Therefore, we developed a new numerical scheme to differentiate tsunami and storm wave boulders for coastal boulders on Ishigaki Island, Japan. In this area, tsunami and storm waves have emplaced numerous boulders on the reef and the coast. By conducting numerical calculations of storm waves in this region, we estimated the size of a storm wave that can explain the maximum clast size distribution of boulders on the reef. Consequently, we showed that a wave with a combination of 8 m in initial wave height and 10 s period can satisfy the above conditions when we assume mean sea level. In contrast to the boulders on the reef, all boulders deposited along the shore are heavier than the calculated possible maximum clast size distribution by the storm wave. Therefore, we confirmed these boulders as being of tsunami origin. Results of previous studies showed that they were most likely deposited or reworked by the 1771 Meiwa tsunami. Then, using the tsunami boulders, we numerically estimated the wave period and amplitude of the 1771 Meiwa tsunami, which should have had a 4–5 min period and 5.6–5.9, 6.3–7.0 m amplitude, respectively. Using the proposed scheme, it is possible to differentiate tsunami and storm wave boulders and estimate the size of past storm waves and tsunami waves, although it is noteworthy that there are exceptions for which the scheme cannot be applied.     

Effects of the 2011 Tohoku-oki tsunami and human activities on long-term coastal geomorphic development in northeastern Tohoku,Japan

The 2011 Tohoku-oki tsunami caused large-scale topographic changes along the Pacific coast of northeastern Japan. More than 10 years have passed since the tsunami waves struck the area. Today, because of reconstruction work, very few places exist where natural post-tsunami topographic changes can be monitored continuously. For this study, the authors investigated topographic changes caused not only by the 2011 tsunami but also by natural and artificial activities during the 50 years before and after the tsunami based on aerial photographs, excavations and subsurface explorations using ground-penetrating radar at the Osuka coast in Aomori prefecture, Japan. The site is rare because it is a protected area with few and superficial engineering activities, making it suitable for continuous observation of pre-tsunami, syn-tsunami and post-tsunami topographic changes. The findings indicate that the 2011 tsunami waves generated large topographic changes: depositional and erosional features produced by the tsunami can be recognized, respectively, as tsunami deposits and erosional channels across the sand dunes. During the post-tsunami phase, the sand volume at the coast quickly recovered naturally. Tsunami deposits and the erosional channels were well preserved underground even at 10 years after the event. However, dynamic movement of the dunes started after the tsunami. The shifting was attributable to the artificial clearing of coastal forests rather than the tsunami effects on the coast. Our results first indicate not only that the sedimentary features of paleo-tsunamis but also the erosional features have some probability of being preserved in the subsurface of the beach and sand dunes at tsunami-affected areas. Also, artificial activities such as deforestation are much more crucially undermining of the stability of the coastal geomorphology than the tsunami effects: the coast is now reaching a different status from its pre-tsunami situation.     

积云对流参数化对一次梅雨锋暴雨过程影响的模拟检验

应用1988年版日本谱模式JSM,对比分析了Arakawa-Schubert、Kain-Fritsch、Kuo-Anthes和Gadd-Keers等几种积云对流参数化方案在梅雨锋暴雨对流系统模拟中的表现.对1988年7月中旬日本九州地区一次梅雨暴雨的模拟结果显示,建立在多种积云簇作用平衡基础上、并刻划了积云内上升和下沉气流作用的Arakawa-Schubert方案表现最佳.结果同时显示,在模式积云对流与模式环境场的相互作用过程中,高质量的初始条件和积云对流参数化方案对理想的中尺度数值模拟都是非常必要的.     

Modeling boulder transport by coastal waves on cliff topography: Case study at Hachijo Island,Japan

Clifftop coastal boulders transported by storm waves or tsunamis have been reported around the world. Although numerical calculation of boulder transport is a strong tool for the identification of tsunami or storm boulders, and for estimation of the wave size emplacing boulders, models which can reasonably solve boulder transport from below a cliff or from a cliff-edge onto a cliff-top do not yet exist. In this study, we developed a new numerical formulation for cliff-top deposition of boulders from the cliff edge or below the cliff, with validation from laboratory tests. We then applied the model using storm and tsunami wave forcing to simulate the observed boulder deposits at the northwest coast of Hachijo Island, Japan. Using the model, the actual distribution of boulders was explained well using a reasonable storm wave height without assumption of anomalously high-water level by storm surge. Results show that boulder transport from the cliff edge or under the cliff onto the cliff-top was possible from a tsunami with periods of 5~10 min or storm waves with no storm surge. However, the actual distribution of boulders on the cliff was explained only by storm waves, but not by tsunami. Therefore, the boulders distributed at this site are likely of storm wave origin. Our developed model for the boulder transport calculation can be useful for identifying a boulder's origin and can reasonably calculate cliff-top deposition of boulders by tsunami and storm waves. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The reduction effects of mangrove forest on a tsunami based on field surveys at Pakarang Cape,Thailand and numerical analysis

Using an integrated approach including satellite imagery analysis, field measurements, and numerical modeling, we investigated the damage to mangroves caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami at Pakarang Cape in Pang Nga Province, Thailand. Comparing pre- and post-tsunami satellite imagery of the study area, we found that approximately 70% of the mangrove forest was destroyed by the tsunami. Based on field observations, we found that the survival rate of mangroves increased with increasing stem diameter. Specifically, we found that 72% of Rhizophora trees with a 25–30 cm stem diameter survived the tsunami impact, whereas only 19% with a 15–20 cm stem diameter survived. We simulated the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami using the nonlinear shallow-water wave theory to reproduce the tsunami inundation flow and investigated the bending moment acting on the mangrove trees. Results of the numerical model showed that the tsunami inundated areas along the mangrove creeks, and its current velocity reached 5.0 m s⁻¹. Based on the field measurements and numerical results, we proposed a fragility function for mangroves, which is the relationship between the probability of damage and the bending stress caused by the maximum bending moment. We refined the numerical model to include the damage probability of mangrove forests using the obtained fragility function to investigate the tsunami reduction effect of mangrove forest. Under simple numerical conditions related to the mangrove forest, ground level, and incident wave, the model showed that a mangrove forest of Rhizophora sp. with a density of 0.2 trees m⁻² and a stem diameter of 15 cm in a 400 m wide area can reduce the tsunami inundation depth by 30% when the incident wave is assumed to have a 3.0 m inundation depth and a wave period of 30 min at the shoreline. However, 50% of the mangrove forest is destroyed by a 4.5 m tsunami inundation depth, and most of the mangrove forest is destroyed by a tsunami inundation depth greater than 6 m. The reduction effect of tsunami inundation depth decreased when the tsunami inundation depth exceeded 3 m, and was mostly lost when the tsunami inundation depth exceeded 6 m.