Thermodynamics with rotation motions: Fragmentation and slip

Basing on the Asymmetric Continuum Theory, we develop the thermodynamics including fragmentation spin fracture processes; applications for the earthquake source processes are considered. The fracture band model is used to describe a dislocation and disclination superlattice. The Gibbs free energy of defect formation is specified. A dynamic spin fracture criterion was formulated. Consequently, a dynamic model of rock fracture employing dislocations, disclinations, and cracks was constructed to describe slip and fragmentation fracture processes in the earthquake sources.     

Spectrum of hot water in the 4750–13 000 cm−1 wavenumber range (0.769–2.1 μm)

The high resolution laboratory spectrum of hot water vapour has been recorded in the 500–13 000 cm⁻¹ wavenumber range and we report on the analysis of the 4750–13 000 cm⁻¹ (0.769–2.1 μm) portion. The emission spectrum was recorded using an oxy-acetylene welding torch and a Fourier transform spectrometer. Line assignments in the laboratory spectrum as well as in an absorption spectrum of a sunspot umbra were made with the help of the BT2 line-list. Our torch spectrum is the first laboratory observation of the 9300 Å'steam bands' seen in M-stars and brown dwarfs.     

Evaluation of the Interpretation of Ceilometer Data with RASS and Radiosonde Data

Since 2006 different remote monitoring methods for determining mixing-layer height have been operated in parallel in Augsburg (Germany). One method is based on the operation of eye-safe commercial mini-lidar systems (ceilometers). The optical backscatter intensities recorded with ceilometers provide information about the range-dependent aerosol concentration; gradient minima within this profile mark the tops of mixed layers. Special software for these ceilometers provides routine retrievals of lower atmospheric layering. A second method, based on sodar observations, detects the height of a turbulent layer characterized by high acoustic backscatter intensities due to thermal fluctuations and a high variance of the vertical velocity component. This information is extended by measurements with a radio-acoustic sounding system (RASS) that directly provides the vertical temperature profile from the detection of acoustic signal propagation and thus temperature inversions that mark atmospheric layers. Ceilometer backscatter information is evaluated by comparison with parallel measurements. Data are presented from 2 years of combined ceilometer and RASS measurements at the same site and from comparison with a nearby (60 km) radiosonde for larger-scale humidity information. This evaluation is designed to ensure mixing-layer height monitoring from ceilometer data more reliable.     

Toward a physically plausible upper bound of sea-level rise projections

Anthropogenic sea-level rise (SLR) causes considerable risks. Designing a sound SLR risk-management strategy requires careful consideration of decision-relevant uncertainties such as the reasonable upper bound of future SLR. The recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) Fourth Assessment reported a likely upper SLR bound in the year 2100 near 0.6 m (meter). More recent studies considering semi-empirical modeling approaches and kinematic constraints on glacial melting suggest a reasonable 2100 SLR upper bound of approximately 2 m. These recent studies have broken important new ground, but they largely neglect uncertainties surrounding thermal expansion (thermosteric SLR) and/or observational constraints on ocean heat uptake. Here we quantify the effects of key parametric uncertainties and observational constraints on thermosteric SLR projections using an Earth system model with a dynamic three-dimensional ocean, which provides a mechanistic representation of deep ocean processes and heat uptake. Considering these effects nearly doubles the contribution of thermosteric SLR compared to previous estimates and increases the reasonable upper bound of 2100 SLR projections by 0.25 m. As an illustrative example of the effect of overconfidence, we show how neglecting thermosteric uncertainty in projections of the SLR upper bound can considerably bias risk analysis and hence the design of adaptation strategies. For conditions close to the Port of Los Angeles, the 0.25 m increase in the reasonable upper bound can result in a flooding-risk increase by roughly three orders of magnitude. Results provide evidence that relatively minor underestimation of the upper bound of projected SLR can lead to major downward biases of future flooding risks.     

Sulphur solubility in andesitic to basaltic melts: implications for Hekla volcano

The solubility of sulphur in sulphide-saturated, H₂O-bearing basaltic–andesitic and basaltic melts from Hekla volcano (Iceland) has been determined experimentally at 1,050°C, 300 and 200 MPa, and redox conditions with oxygen fugacity (logfO₂) between QFM−1.2 and QFM+1.1 (QFM is a quartz–fayalite–magnetite oxygen buffer) in the systems containing various amounts of S and H₂O. The S content of the H₂O-rich glasses saturated with pyrrhotite decreases from 2,500 ppm in basalt to 1,500 ppm in basaltic andesite at the investigated conditions. Furthermore, the reduction of water content in the melt at pyrrhotite saturation and fixed T, P and redox conditions leads to a decrease in S concentration from 2,500 to 1,400 ppm for basaltic experiments (for H₂O decrease from 7.8 to 1.4 wt%) and from 1,500 to 900 ppm (for H₂O decrease from 6.7 to 1.7 wt%) for basaltic andesitic experiments. Our experimental data, combined with silicate melt inclusion investigations and the available models on sulphide saturation in mafic magmas, indicate that the parental basaltic melts of Hekla were not saturated with respect to sulphide. During magmatic differentiation, the S content in the residual melts increased and might have reached sulphide saturation with 2,500 ppm dissolved S. With further magma crystallization, the S concentration in the melt was controlled by the sulphide saturation of the magma, decreasing from ~2,500 to 900 ppm S.     

Moldavites from the Cheb Basin, Czech Republic

Between 1993 and 2007, an estimated 2500-3000 individual moldavite pieces have been found in the Tertiary Cheb Basin, Western Bohemia. This identifies the area as the third most prominent source of Central European tektites, next to the South Bohemian and West Moravian strewn subfields. Basic macroscopic physical properties (weight, shape, color and sculpture) were evaluated for over 350 individual finds of tektites from 4 different localities in the Cheb Basin. All these properties are similar to those observed for the South Bohemian moldavites, particularly with respect of color and weight distribution. In total, 24 tektites from the Cheb Basin have been characterized chemically using electron microprobe. For comparison, a set of 17 moldavites from the South-Bohemian and Moravian strewn subfields was measured as well. Contents of major elements overlap between the two sample sets; the largest variation was observed for iron. The trends observed in the Harker plots, however, seem to differentiate several partial subgroups, some of them characteristic for Cheb tektites only. These results are also substantiated by cluster analysis, which reveals a tight group for most of the tektites from the Cheb Basin, forming two partial clusters. The rest of the Cheb moldavites cluster with the South Bohemian samples. Minor and trace elements were measured with an LA-ICP-MS technique; CI-normalized REE patterns compare well with those for other moldavites. Many tektites, both from Cheb and South Bohemia or Moravia, display considerable heterogeneity: they frequently show schlieren and fluidal fabric. Two samples of this kind from the Cheb Basin showed considerable enrichment in volatile elements (e.g., Zn and Cu), which is typical for Muong Nong-type Australasian tektites. Mössbauer spectroscopy confirmed the highly reducing character of 5 studied moldavites. Discovery of a new moldavite strewn subfield around Cheb substantiates the theory that moldavites were ejected from the Ries impact structure in a fan-shaped jet, although it is not clear yet if it was continuous or composed of individual rays. In addition, the chemistry of the Cheb moldavites indicates significant precursor material heterogeneity.     

The role and conditions of second-stage mantle melting in the generation of low-Ti tholeiites and boninites: the case of the Manihiki Plateau and the Troodos ophiolite

High-Mg, low-Ti volcanic rocks from the Manihiki Plateau in the Western Pacific share many geochemical characteristics with subduction-related boninites such as high-Ca boninites from the Troodos ophiolite on Cyprus, which are believed to originate by hydrous re-melting of previously depleted mantle. In this paper we compare the Manihiki rocks and Troodos boninites using a new dataset on the major and trace element composition of whole rocks and glasses from these locations, and new high-precision, electron microprobe analyses of olivine and Cr-spinel in these rocks. Our results show that both low-Ti Manihiki rocks and Troodos boninites could originate by re-melting of a previously depleted lherzolite mantle source (20–25% of total melting with 8–10% melting during the first stage), as indicated by strong depletion of magmas in more to less incompatible elements (Sm/Yb < 0.8, Zr/Y < 2, Ti/V < 12) and high-Cr-spinel compositions (Cr# > 0.5). In comparison with Troodos boninites, the low-Ti Manihiki magmas had distinctively lower H₂O contents (< 0.2 vs. > 2 wt% in boninites), ~ 100 °C higher liquidus temperatures at a given olivine Fo-number, lower fO₂ (ΔQFM < + 0.2 vs. ΔQFM > + 0.2) and originated from deeper and hotter mantle (1.4–1.7 GPa, ~ 1440 °C vs. 0.8–1.0 GPa, ~ 1300 °C for Troodos boninites). The data provide new evidence that re-melting of residual upper mantle is not only restricted to subduction zones, where it occurs under hydrous conditions, but can also take place due to interaction of previously depleted upper mantle with mantle plumes from the deep and hotter Earth interior.     

Population ecology of the snail Melampus bidentatus in changing salt marsh landscapes

We studied the population ecology of the snail Melampus bidentatus in relation to patch composition and landscape structure across several salt marsh systems in Connecticut, USA. These marshes have changed significantly over the past 40–50 years including loss of total area, increased areas of short Spartina alterniflora, and decreased areas and fragmentation of Spartina patens. These changes are consistent with tidal inundation patterns that indicate frequent flooding of high marsh areas. Melampus bidentatus densities were highly variable, both among different salt marsh systems and locations within specific marshes, but were generally similar among short Sp. alterniflora and Sp. patens patches within locations. Densities were lowest where the marsh was regularly inundated at high tide and only remnant Sp. patens patches remained. Almost no snails were found in bare patches. Areas that had large Sp. patens patches adjacent to short Sp. alterniflora supported the highest M. bidentatus densities. Population size‐structure varied significantly among patch types, with higher proportions of large individuals in short Sp. alterniflora and hummocked Sp. patens patches than in large and remnant Sp. patens patches. This was likely due to size‐selective predation and/or higher snail growth rates due to better food resource conditions in short Sp. alterniflora patches. Egg mass densities and the number of eggs per egg mass were highest in short Sp. alterniflora. Our results indicate that M. bidentatus is resilient to the level and patterns of salt marsh change evident at our study sites. Indeed, snail densities were significantly higher than reported in other field studies, suggesting that increased patch areas of short Sp. alterniflora and associated environmental conditions at our study sites may provide more favorable habitats than previously when marshes were dominated by extensive Sp. patens meadows. However, there may be threshold conditions that could overwhelm the ability of M. bidentatus to maintain itself within salt marsh systems where changes in hydrology, sedimentation and other factors lead to increased numbers of bare patches and ponds and loss of short Sp. alterniflora and Sp. patens. Studies of the responses of resident and transient fauna to salt marsh change are critically needed in order to better understand the implications for salt marsh ecosystem dynamics and services.     

Steered migration in hard rock environments

Hard rock seismic exploration normally has to deal with rather complex geological environments. These types of environments are usually characterized by a large number of local heterogeneity (e.g., faults, fracture zones, and steeply dipping interfaces). The seismic data from such environments often have a poor signal‐to‐noise ratio because of the complexity of hard rock geology. To be able to obtain reliable images of subsurface structures in such geological conditions, processing algorithms that are capable of handling seismic data with a low signal‐to‐noise ratio are required for a reflection seismic exploration. In this paper, we describe a modification of the 3D Kirchhoff post‐stack migration algorithm that utilizes coherency attributes obtained by the diffraction imaging algorithm in 3D to steer the main Kirchhoff summation. The application to a 3D synthetic model shows the stability of the presented steered migration to the presence of high level of the random noise. A test on the 3D seismic volume, acquired on a mine site located in Western Australia, reveals the capability of the approach to image steep and sharp objects such as fracture and fault zones and lateral heterogeneity.     

Great Silk Road on the Territory of Kazakhstan: From Past to Future

The Great Silk Road is a trade route linking the East and West which gave impetus to the development of ancient society, and Kazakhstan is the heart of the trade route. At the initial stage, intensive transaction of goods took place between the West and East through The Great Silk Road. This paper reviewed the history of development of the Silk Road and suggested that today to construct the "New Silk Road", Kazakhstan should face many issues, and take many steps to become a Eurasian hub through taking full of advantages. Above all, developing mechanisms of integration and sustainable development is our urgent need.