咸水层二氧化碳封存试验的水文和地球化学监测

水文和地球化学监测是典型试验场地特征描述和二氧化碳利流监测的主要组成部分。本次试验把二氧化碳注入德克萨斯州北部海湾地区河成三角洲Frio地层的含咸水砂层。注入的二氧化碳在原地形成超临界相,与周围咸水相比超临界相二氧化碳具有气体特征（低密度和粘度）,而一些二氧化碳溶解于咸水。典型试验通过1个注入井和1个监测井完成。在两个水井均开展了压力和流速监测;在监测井持续采集地表流体样品和定期采集井下液体样品。在二氧化碳注入之前开展的场地特征描述包括：在抽水试验的同时进行压力瞬变分析,来评估单相流动特征;确定注入井和监测井之间的水力连通性;确定对应的边界条件以及分析地层范围内的环境条件。此外,在注入二氧化碳前开展的示踪剂试验,有助于评估在单相条件下注入井和监测井之间的动态孔隙率和流径的几何形状。在注入二氧化碳前开展的地球化学采样,能为随后开展的地球化学监测提供基准,并有助于确定注入二氧化碳时使用的最佳示踪剂。在二氧化碳注入期间,开展水文监测来评估两相流动特征,并协助监测注入的二氧化碳羽流的运动;而通过地球化学采样能够提供二氧化碳和示踪剂到达监测井的直接证据。而且,含有二氧化碳的水能起到弱酸的作用,可与含水层内多种矿物发生反应,在监测井采集水样时可提供明显的化学信号。单相示踪剂试验和二氧化碳（以及与二氧化碳同时注入的示踪剂）的临界点曲线对比结果显示：超临界二氧化碳与固有咸水之间存在两相流动过程：为了有效地把二氧化碳封存于咸水含水层,必须充分了解二氧化碳封存场地当前存在的不确定性因素。     

Detection of a new interstellar molecular ion, H2COH+ (protonated formaldehyde)

A new interstellar molecular ion, H2COH+ (protonated formaldehyde), has been detected toward Sgr B2, Orion KL, W51, and possibly in NGC 7538 and DR21(OH). Six transitions were detected in Sgr B2(M). The 1(1,0)-1(0,1) transition was detected in all sources listed above. Searches were also made toward the cold, dark clouds TMC-1 and L134N, Orion (3N, 1E), and a red giant, IRC + 10216, without success. The excitation temperatures of H2COH+ are calculated to be 60-110 K, and the column densities are on the order of 10(12)-10(14) cm-2 in Sgr B2, Orion KL, and W51. The fractional abundance of H2COH+ is on the order of 10(-11) to 10-(9), and the ratio of H2COH+ to H2CO is in the range 0.001-0.5 in these objects. The values in Orion KL seem to be consistent with the "early time" values of recent model calculations by Lee, Bettens, & Herbst, but they appear to be higher than the model values in Sgr B2 and W51 even if we take the large uncertainties of column densities of H2CO into account. We suggest production routes starting from CH3OH may play an important role in the formation of H2COH+.     

The population of Croatia

Croatia is a Central European and Mediterranean state, located in contact with and under the influence of various spheres of civilization, which for centuries have penetrated and conflicted on and around the territory of Croatia. Such a position has resulted in various influences which did not always have a positive effect on the development of Croatia. The gradual narrowing and decrease of the Croatian ethnic territory, as well as the presence of national minorities in it, was also a result of the aforementioned position and outside influences (ulji 1993/1994).The demographic structure of Croatia indicates a series of specificities which were primarily conditioned by the historical development of Croatia and which is particularly expressed in constant emigration since the end of the nineteenth century, the relatively large direct and indirect losses to the population during and immediately after the First and Second World Wars, emigration as a type of population movement in all inter-census periods after 1945, the appearance of a natural decline and the aging of the population on almost one half of the state territory.     

A photochemical model of the martian atmosphere

The factors governing the amounts of CO, O2, and O3 in the martian atmosphere are investigated using a minimally constrained, one-dimensional photochemical model. We find that the incorporation of temperature-dependent CO2 absorption cross sections leads to an enhancement in the water photolysis rate, increasing the abundance of OH radicals to the point where the model CO abundance is smaller than observed. Good agreement between models and observations of CO, O2, O3, and the escape flux of atomic hydrogen can be achieved, using only gas-phase chemistry, by varying the recommended rate constants for the reactions CO + OH and OH + HO2 within their specified uncertainties. Similar revisions have been suggested to resolve discrepancies between models and observations of the terrestrial mesosphere. The oxygen escape flux plays a key role in the oxygen budget on Mars; as inferred from the observed atomic hydrogen escape, it is much larger than recent calculations of the exospheric escape rate for oxygen. Weathering of the surface may account for the imbalance. Quantification of the escape rates of oxygen and hydrogen from Mars is a worthwhile objective for an upcoming martian upper atmospheric mission. We also consider the possibility that HOx radicals may be catalytically destroyed on dust grains suspended in the atmosphere. Good agreement with the observed CO mixing ratio can be achieved via this mechanism, but the resulting ozone column is much higher than the observed quantity. We feel that there is no need at this time to invoke heterogeneous processes to reconcile models and observations.     

Near-infrared spectroscopy of dark asteroids

Near-infrared (J, H and K bands) spectra of nine dark asteroids (chosen among a sample of supposed primitive objects between C and D classes) have been obtained at the Mauna Kea Observatory (Hawaii) with the 2.2-m telescope using KSPEC as spectrograph. The aim of this work was to search for evidence of the presence of organic materials in these objects as found in other planetary bodies as 5145 Pholus, and in some cometary nuclei. A careful analysis of the data has revealed flat or slightly redder spectra than the solar one for all observed asteroids. No evidence of distinct absorption features was found.     

Reservoir timescales for anthropogenic CO2 in the atmosphere

Non-steady state timescales are complicated and their application to specific geophysical systems requires a common theoretical foundation. We first extend reservoir theory by quantifying the difference between turnover time and transit time (or residence time) for time-dependent systems under any mixing conditions. We explicitly demonstrate the errors which result from assuming these timescales are equal, which is only true at steady state. We also derive a new response function which allows the calculation of age distributions and timescales for well-mixed reservoirs away from steady state, and differentiate between timescales based on gross and net fluxes. These theoretical results are particularly important to tracer-calibrated "box models" currently used to study the carbon cycle, which usually approximate reservoirs as well-mixed. We then apply the results to the important case of anthropogenic CO2 in the atmosphere, since timescales describing its behavior are commonly used but ambiguously defined. All relevant timescales, including lifetime, transit time, and adjustment time, are precisely defined and calculated from data and models. Apparent discrepancies between the current, empirically determined turnover time of 30-60 years and longer model-derived estimates of expected lifetime and adjustment time are explained within this theoretical framework. We also discuss the results in light of policy issues related to global warming, in particular since any comparisons of the "lifetimes" of different greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, CFC's etc.) must use a consistent definition to be meaningful.     

Nitrogen sulfide in quiescent dark clouds

We report the first detection of interstellar nitrogen sulfide (NS) in cold dark clouds. Several components of the 2 pi 1/2, J = 3/2 --> 1/2 and J = 5/2 --> 3/2 transitions were observed in TMC-1 and L134N. The inferred column density for TMC-1 is NNS approximately 8 x 10(12)cm-2 toward the NH3 peak in that cloud, and in L134N is NNS approximately 3 x 10(12)cm-2 toward the position of peak NH3 emission. These values correspond to fractional abundances relative to molecular hydrogen of fNS approximately 8 x 10(-10) for TMC-1, and fNS approximately 6 x 10(-10) for L134N. The NS emission is extended along the TMC-1 ridge and is also extended in L134N. The measured abundances are significantly higher than those predicted by some recent gas phase ion-molecule models.     

Kinetics of peptide hydrolysis and amino acid decomposition at high temperature

Dipeptide hydrolysis and amino acid decomposition appear to follow a first-order rate law. The hydrolysis rate increases exponentially with increasing temperature in aqueous solution at both 265 atm and water steam pressures over the temperature range of 100 to 220 degrees C. Dipeptide hydrolysis has a lower apparent activation energy at 265 atm (44.1 KJ/mol) than at water steam pressure (98.9 KJ/mol). At lower temperatures (<200-220 degrees C), the rate of peptide bond hydrolysis is faster at 265 atm than at water steam pressure. At higher temperatures (>200-220 degrees C), however, peptide bond hydrolysis is slower at 265 atm than at water steam pressure. In aqueous solution, amino acid decomposition rates also increase exponentially with increasing temperature. Amino acid decomposition rates are much higher at 265 atm than at water steam pressure over the entire temperature range investigated.     

Urban development policy in India with special reference to Himachal Pradesh

This paper addresses the following questions: 1) What have been the government policies, programs, and perceptions dominating the urban development scenario in India? 2) What has been the outcome of these policies and programs of urban development? 3) What should be the strategy of future urban development with reference to the Indian hill state of Himachal Pradesh? The paper critically evaluates the Indian ethos pertaining to the urbanization process, urban development policies pursued in the Five Year Plans, the current thinking on urbanization, and the main issues in urban development. It has been observed that not only is the urbanization level in Himachal Pradesh quite low, but also that the urban development here suffers from a number of serious problems. Acute shortage of building space, limited capacity to mobilize resources from their own sources, overcrowding, and slum dwelling are some such problems. Unfortunately, urbanization has not been visualized as generative of economic growth and employment opportunities both at the state and national government levels. Therefore, the major thrust of Plan policies has been to arrest rural-urban migration. However, recently there has been a desire to manage urban affairs through a new policy seeking production efficiency and cost effectiveness.     

Evidence of ancient life at 207 m depth in a granitic aquifer

The results of electron-microscopy investigations of calcite precipitated in a water-conducting fracture in a ca. 1800 Ma granitic rock from 207 m below sea level at the island of Aspo on the southeastern (Baltic) coast of Sweden are compared with measurements of carbon, oxygen, and sulfur isotope composition of the calcite and embedded pyrite. Parts of the calcite had extremely low delta 13C values, indicative of biological activity, and contained bacteria-like microfossils occurring in colonies and as typical biofllms. X-ray microanalysis demonstrated these fossils to be enriched in carbon. Our results provide evidence for ancient life in deep granitic rock aquifers and suggest that the modern microbial life found there is intrinsic. Modeling historical and present geochemical processes in deep granitic aquifers should, therefore, preferably include biologically catalyzed reactions. The results also suggest that the search for life on other planets, e.g., Mars, should include subsurface material.