Impact structures and events - a Nordic perspective

Impact cratering is one of the fundamental processes in the formation of the Earth and our planetary system, as reflected, for example in the surfaces of Mars and the Moon. The Earth has been covered by a comparable number of impact scars, but due to active geological processes, weathering, sea floor spreading etc, the number of preserved and recognized impact craters on the Earth are limited. The study of impact structures is consequently of great importance in our understanding of the formation of the Earth and the planets, and one way we directly, on the Earth, can study planetary geology.
The Nordic-Baltic area have about thirty confirmed impact structures which makes it one of the most densely crater-populated terrains on Earth. The high density of identified craters is due to the level of research activity, coupled with a deterministic view of what we look for. In spite of these results, many Nordic structures are poorly understood due to the lack of 3D-geophysical interpretations, isotopeor other dating efforts and better knowledge of the amount of erosion and subsequent tectonic modifications.
The Nordic and Baltic impact community is closely collaborating in several impact-related projects and the many researchers （about forty） and PhD students （some seventeen） promise that this level will continue for many more years. The main topics of research include geological, geophysical and geochemical studies in combination with modeling and impact experiments. Moreover, the Nordic and Baltic crust contains some hundred suspect structures which call for detailed analysis to define their origin.
New advanced methods of analyzing geophysical information in combination with detailed geochemical analyses and numerical modeling will be the future basic occupation of the impact scientists of the region. The unique Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary （K-T） occurrences in Denmark form an important source of information in explaining one of the major mass extinctions on Earth.     

Neue Wege in die Ökotoxikologie: Quantitative Verhaltensmessungen an Fischen als Toxizitätsendpunkt

New Ways to Ecotoxicology: Quantitative Recording of Behaviour of Fish as Toxicity Endpoint The BehavioQuant system will be introduced which uses the integrative whole-organism response by automatized recording and quantifying the spontaneous behaviour of fish and other test organisms. While moving unrestricted within the test chamber, the movements of each single fish are recorded by video imaging, and their traces are digitized numerically by x-/y-coordinates. From the object traces several test parameters are calculated which give information about behavioural changes of the observed fishes. These various parameters are: the average swimming velocity (motility), the average swimming depth below surface, the inconstancy of motility, the frequency of turns, the standard frequency distributions of vertical and horizontal positions (can be used for quantification of a preference for dark or light habitats), and the distance behaviour. A continuously monitoring of up to 16 aquaria is possible. The statistic comparison between treated groups and control groups is done for each test parameter separately. The automatical evaluation of the continuous observation of surface waters results from a comparison of the actual behaviour data to the data of a reference period. Some examples for the applications of the BehavioQuant system will be demonstrated (effects of atrazine), and their results will be discussed. Behavioural changes of a single species can finally cause changes in biocenotic structures and functions. Therefore, it is necessary to include the results of quantitative behaviour measurements in ecotoxicological hazard assessment.     

Randpazifische Tektonik und Vulkanismus im südlichen Chile

Zusammenfassung Die Struktur des südlichen Chile zwischen 37° und 42° S wird beschrieben. Die Anden gingen teils aus einer jurassisch-unterkretazischen Eugeosynklinale, teils aus magmatischer Regeneration gondwanischer Relikte hervor. Es überwiegt E-vergenter Falten- und Schuppenbau. In den Längstalbecken begann die Senkung im Eozän auf vorwiegend präkambrischem Sockel. Die Küstenkordillere besteht großenteils aus präkambrischen Para-Serien, welche seit der Oberkreide in die randpazifische Tektonik einbezogen wurden. Im Schelfgürtel herrscht seit der Oberkreide Sedimentation auf instabilem, antithetisch brechendem Sockel. Die Andesit-Förderung erfolgte längs geradliniger Fronten, welche sich mehrfach verlagerten. Beim Erdbeben von 1960 wurde der Krustenblock zwischen Kontinentalrand und Anden als Ganzes westwärts bewegt und gekippt. Ein Krustenmodell wird entworfen und dessen Entwicklung unter dem Aspekt der Kontinentaldrift Südamerikas diskutiert.

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The structure of Southern Chile between 37° and 42° S is described. The Andean cordillera is the result partly of a Jurassic-lower cretaceous eugeosyncline and partly of magmatic regeneration of gondwanian residues. Eastoverturned fold and imbricate structure predominates. In the basins within the longitudinal valley subsidence started in the Eocene mainly on a precambrian basement. The coast range consists mostly of precambrian para-series, which were included in the marginal pacific tectonics since the Upper Cretaceous. In the shelf region sedimentation takes place since the Upper Cretaceous on an unstable, antithetic breaking basement. Andesites erupted along straight fronts, which changed position several times. During the earthquake in 1960 the crustblock between the continental margin and the main cordillera moved westwards and tilted as a whole. A crust-model is traced out; its development is discussed under the aspect of the continental drift of South America.

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Résumé Ce traité comprend la structure du Chili méridional entre 37° et 42° S. La cordillère des Andes résulte d'une part d'un eugéosynclinal jurassique-crétassique inférieur, d'autre part d'une régénération magmatique des restes gondwaniens. Dans cette cordillère une structure plissée et écailleuse prédomine qui est déversée vers l'Est. Dans les bassins de la vallée longitudinale le sous-sol dont le socle était surtout précambrien, avait commencé à se tasser pendant l'époque de l'Eocène. La cordillère côtière se compose en grande partie de para-séries précambriennes, qui furent comprises dans la tectonique pacifique marginale depuis le Crétacé supérieur. Dans la région de la plate-forme continentale il y a une sédimentation depuis le Crétacé supérieur; le socle y était instable et se cassait antithétiquement. Les points d'éruptions des andésites s'alignaient; ces fronts tout droits changeaient de places plusieurs fois. Pendant le tremblement de terre en 1960 tout le bloc crustal qui se trouvait entre le talus continental et la cordillère des Andes fut mis en mouvement vers l'Ouest et basculé entièrement. Un modèle de l'écorce est tracé dont le développement est discuté sous l'aspect de la translation continentale de l'Amérique du Sud.

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Zur Genese neuentdeckter Vulkanschlote in der Umgebung des Donnersberges/Pfalz

Zusammenfassung Einige neuentdeckte Vulkanschlote im Rotliegenden der Umgebung des Donnersberges in der Saar-Nahe-Senke/Pfalz wurden hinsichtlich Aufbau, Alter und Genese untersucht. Es sind calderaartig abgesunkene Pyroclastica von Schlotbreccien zu unterscheiden, von denen Ablagerung aus einer Gas-Partikel-Suspension angenommen wird. Die Breccien setzen sich aus einer Mischung von Lapilli und z. T. aufgearbeitetem Nebengestein zusammen. In fast allen Schloten wurde die Aktivität durch das Eindringen von Schmelzen abgeschlossen.Als Beispiel wird der Schlot des Rödern beschrieben.

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In the Lower Permian of the Saar-Nahe-Senke (Palatinate, SW Germany) several recently discovered volcanic necks have been investigated. In this preliminary report structure, composition, and age relationship of the breccias are described as well as their mode of emplacement which is believed to be due partly to fluidization and partly to calderalike subsidence of subaerially deposited tephra. In some of the necks magmatic intrusion terminated the volcanic activity.The volcanic neck of the Rödern is described as an example.

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Résumé Plusieurs cheminées récemment découvertes dans le Permien inférieur des alentours du Donnersberg dans la Saar-Nahe-Senke (Palatinat, Sud-ouest d'Allemagne) ont été étudiées. Leur composition et les problèmes de l'âge et de la genèse sont discutés. Il faut distinguer des sédiments pyroclastiques des caldères d'effondrement et des brèches formées à l'intérieur des cheminées. Celles-ci se composent des lapillis et des fragments des roches encaissantes. Leur formation est le résultat d'un dégagement de gaz tenant en suspension des particules solides.La fin de l'activité est marquée en général par l'intrusion des laves. La cheminée du Rödern est décrite à titre d'exemple.

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Isotopic and hydrochemical studies of groundwater flow and salinity in the Southern Upper Rhine Graben

In order to determine the origin and the propagation mechanisms of highly concentrated chloride brines within the Quaternary aquifer system in the southern part of the Upper Rhine Graben, a combined isotope (H, O, C) and hydrochemical analysis was carried out. Groundwater recharge in this area is a complex system, consisting of local precipitation, river bank filtration, lateral flow from the Graben borders and, to a minor extent, an old Pleistocene component. In some areas, groundwater consists of up to 90% of recent bank filtrate, reaching depths down to at least 100 m. The isotopic and hydrochemical results show, that the elevated chloride concentrations in the Quaternary aquifer mainly result from leaky settling basins charged by the French potash mines until the mid 1970s. Input of natural brines coming from tertiary salt diapirs is of only minor importance. While infiltrating, the anthropogenic brines were strongly diluted by local river bank filtrate of the Rhine. Nevertheless, maximum chloride concentrations nowadays still reach some 10,000 mg/l at the base of the aquifer at a depth of more than 100 m below surface. The main volume of the brines is stored in the less permeable lower part of the quaternary sediments (Breisgau-Formation) whereas only a minor part is transported northwards with the rapid convective groundwater flow. Brines undergoing only dilution preserve their hydrochemical characteristics (NaCl-type). In contrast, brines recirculated from the Breisgau-Formation show a northwards increasing alteration through ion exchange processes. Potassium and sodium may be fixed in the fine grained aquifer material while calcium is set free into the groundwater. After a flow distance of about 12 km, complex hydraulic interactions between groundwater and surface waters lead to the rise of strongly diluted and hydrochemically altered brines with chloride contents up to maximum 700 mg/l. The presented case study is an example for a detailed analysis of a multi-component groundwater mixing system using combined isotope and hydrochemical methods. Furthermore, cation exchange is shown as a major process affecting the hydrochemical evolution of the young groundwater in the southern Upper Rhine Graben which is locally strongly polluted by chloride as a consequence of former potash mining.     

A progressive line simplification algorithm

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On the last explosions of carbonatite pipe G3b, Gross Brukkaros, Namibia

 Pipe G3b is part of the Upper Cretaceous carbonatitic Gross Brukkaros Volcanic Field in southern Namibia. The pipe represents the root zone of a diatreme and is located 2800 m west of the rim of Gross Brukkaros, a downsag caldera. The pipe is exposed approximately 550 m below the original Upper Cretaceous land surface. It cuts down into its own feeder dyke, 0.3 m thick. The pipe coalesced from two small pipes and in plan view is 19 m long and 12 m wide. It consists of fragmented Cambrian Nama quartzites and shales of the Fish River subgroup. Despite intensive brecciation, the stratigraphic sequence of the country rocks is almost preserved in the pipe. In addition, the feeder dyke became fragmented too and can be traced in a 2- to 3-m-wide zone full of carbonatite blocks along the southern margin of the pipe. The void space of the breccia is 30–50% in volume. Finally, after the disruption of country rocks and feeder dyke, a little carbonatite magma intruded some of the void space. The breccia of pipe G3b is considered to represent a root zone at the transition from the feeder dyke into a diatreme above. Formation of the breccia required a shock wave thought to have been associated with a last explosion of the diatreme immediately above the present level of exposure. The explosion can be shown to have been phreatomagmatic in origin. Received: 11 October 1996 / Accepted: 6 March 1997