Die Bimodalität des Vulkanismus und die Herkunft der Magmen

Zusammenfassung Häufigkeitsdiagramme der Explosivitätsindiees der tätigen Vulkane und einiger Komponenten der Magmen (Abb. 1–5) beweisen die Bimodalität des Vulkanismus, die nur durch eine Herkunft der Magmen aus zwei voneinander unabhängigen Quellen (oberer Mantel und Kontinentalkruste) erklärt werden kann.Gegen die Hypothesen, die die Bildung von basisdien Magmen durch Einschmelzung von kristallinen Mantelgesteinen zu erklären versuchen, werden physikalisch und geochemisch begründete Einwände erhoben. Dagegen wird der low velocity layer als teilweise geschmolzene Zone aufgefaßt, aus der die simatischen Magmen stammen. Die sialischen Magmen entstehen dagegen in der Hauptsache durch eine teilweise oder völlige Einschmelzung von Krustenmaterial in Orogenen (Regionalanatexis) und lokal in Kratonen (Kontaktanatexis). Die relativ große Variationsbreite der sialischen Magmen wird durch die Verschiedenheit des Ausgangsmaterials (metamorphe Differentiation), durch Hybridismus und durch Differentiationsprozesse erklärt.Geologische Tatsachen beweisen, daß die sialische Erdkruste schon vor niemals 3 1/2 Milliarden Jahren vorhanden war. Andererseits zeigen die Mohorovii-Diskontinuität und die Bimodalität des Vulkanismus, daß das Sial nicht ein Differentiat des simatischen Mantelmaterials sein kann. Es wird gezeigt, daß weder die Entstehung des Sials noch der Vulkanismus im Rahmen der Planetesimalhypothese erklärt werden können. Im Dilemma zwischen der Emföhrrmg einer unbegründbaren ad hoc Hypothese von sialischen Riesenmeteoriten und der Hypothese einer heliogenen Erde, wird die letztere vorgezogen, da sie eine ungezwungene Erklärung der Entstehung der Sialkruste und der Bimodalität des Vulkanismus ermöglicht.

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The frequency diagrams of the index of volcanic explosivity and of some chemical components of the magmas (Fig. 1–5) prove the bimodality of volcanism, which can be explained only by admitting two independent sources of magma, the mantle and the crust. On the basis of physical and chemical facts objections are made against the hypotheses which try to explain the formation of basaltic magmas by partial or total melting of crystalline mantle rocks. It is much more probable that these magmas derive from the low velocity layer which is considered to consist of already, at least partially, molten material. The sialic magmas are produced chiefly by melting of crustal material in orogenic belts (regional anatexis) or, occasionally, in cratonic regions (contact anatexis). The relatively wide variation of sialic magmas is explained by different composition of the original material (metamorphic differentiation), by hybridism and by various types of magmatic differentiation.Geological facts demonstrate the sialic crust to have existed already over 3 1/2 b. y. ago. The Moho-discontinuity and the bimodality of volcanism show that the sialic crust cannot be a product of differentiation of the upper mantle material. It is shown that neither the origin of Sial nor the volcanism can be reasonably explained by the hypothesis of planetesimals. Having the choice between the ad hoc hypothesis of the impact of giant meteorites of about sialic composition, capable to create at once a continent, and the old hypothesis of a solar origin of the earth, the author prefers the latter one.

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Résumé La bimodalité du volcanisme est démontrée par la fréquence des indices d'explosivité des volcans actifs et par celle de certains constituants chimiques des magmas. Cette bimodalité s'explique par l'existence de deux sources de magmas indépendants: le manteau supérieur et la croûte sialique. Pour des raisons physiques et géochimiques, l'auteur s'oppose aux hypothèses qui cherchent à expliquer l'origine des magmas basaltiques par une fusion partielle ou totale de matériel cristallisé du manteau supérieur. Il considère le « low velocity layer » comme au moins partiellement fondu et étant la source des magmas basiques. Par contre les magmas sialiques prennent origine dans l'anatexie régionale (zones orogéniques) ou, localement, dans l'anatexie de contact (zones cratoniques étirées). La variation relativement grande, des magmas sialiques peut être expliquée par la différence des roches préexistantes (differentiation métamorphique) et aussi par l'hybridisme et par des divers processus de différentiation magmatique.Des faits géologiques démontrent que la croûte sialique a existé déjà il y a plus de 3 1/2 milliards d'années. La discontinuité de Mohorovii ainsi que la bimodalité du volcanisme ne peuvent pas être produites par une différentiation quelconque du matériel du manteau supérieur. Ni l'origine du Sial, ni le volcanisme ne peuvent être expliqués raisonnablement dans le cadre classique de l'hypothèse planétésimale. Ayant le choix entre une hypothèse ad hoc qui veut expliquer l'origine des continents par la chute de météorites gigantesques de composition à peu près sialique et l'hypothèse d'une origine solaire de la terre, l'auteur préfère la dernière.

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Neue Anschauungen über die Rolle von Schichtfugen und Klüften in der karsthydrographischen Entwicklung

Zusammenfassung Über die Gebundenheit der Karsthydrographie an Klüfte oder Schichtfugen herrschen je nach den Sprachgebieten unterschiedliche Meinungen vor. Allgemein ging man jedoch an der Tatsache vorbei, daß das Wasser bei Druckfließen, also unter phreatischen Bedingungen, kein aggressives CO₂ mehr zur Verfügung hat und daher nicht korrodieren kann. Korrosion war daher nur für die vadose Zone erklärbar, und auch nur dann, wenn das Wasser den Gleichgewichtskalkgehalt von 60 bis 90 mg/Liter, je nach Höhenlage, nicht erreicht, was unter bedecktem Karst kaum jemals der Fall ist. Genaue Untersuchungen im 100 km langen Hölloch (Schweiz) (Bögli 1953, 1960, 1966, 1968) und an andern, vor allem französischen Höhlen (Chevalier 1944), ergeben, daß sich das unterirdische Gewässernetz zum größeren Teil anfänglich unter phreatischen Bedingungen entwickelt, was aber nur durch Mischungskorrosion (Bögli 1963 b, 1964 a, 1964 b) möglich ist, die nicht auf eine CO₂-Zufuhr von außen angewiesen ist. Durch Inkasion (Nachbruch, Einsturz), die an der primären Hohlraumbildung meist nicht beteiligte Kluftflächen herausarbeitet, wird die schichtgebundene Entstehung meist verdeckt, was zu falschen Folgerungen führt. In der vadosen Zone folgt das Wasser vorwiegend offenen Klüften oder einer undurchlässigen Schicht und fließt auf kürzestem Weg dem Karstwasserkörper zu.

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Up to now the connection between the hydrology of karst and joints on the one and bedding planes on the other hand is much discussed. But in every case the corrosion of limestone appeared impossible in the phreatic zone because free CO₂ is missing in waterfilled galleries. Intensive investigations in the 62.2 miles of galleries in the Hölloch (Switzerland,Bögli 1953, 1960, 1966, 1968) and in many other caves, in particular in France (Chevalier 1944), demonstrate that on the base of corrosion by mixed water the pattern of underground watercourses is predominantly formed under phreatic conditions in pressure flows and on bedding planes. This fact is frequently masked by incasion (roof fall, lat. incadere = to break down in a cavity) removing joints and fractures which have never participated on the primary forming of galleries. In the vadose zone the underground watercourses generally follow open joints and flow on the nearest way to the groundwater.

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Résumé Le rapport entre l'hydrographie karstique et soit les diaclases d'une part, soit les joints de stratification de l'autre est une question assez discutée, surtout en dehors de la France. Mais en tout cas on ne se rend normalement pas compte qu'en conduit forcé l'eau n'emporte pas du CO₂ aggressif plus loin que quelques mètres à l'intérieur de la terre, sauf dans les réseaux déjà assez élargis. L'élargissement demande alors d'une part des conditions vadoses, c'est-à-dire la présence de l'air avec du CO₂, de l'autre de l'eau qui n'a pas encore atteint la concentration d'équilibre de 60 à 90 mg CO₃Ca par litre selon l'altitude. Mais les recherches avancées dans les 100 km du Hölloch (Muotatal, Suisse,Bögli 1953, 1960, 1966, 1968) et dans maintes autres cavernes, surtout en France (Chevalier 1944), prouvent, que les réseaux souterrains se développent au contraire primairement en grandes parties dans la zone noyée en conduit forcé et sur des joints de stratification. Cela demande alors un autre type de corrosion, la corrosion par mélange des eaux qui ne dépend pas de l'adduction de CO₂ d'en dehors de l'eau (Bögli 1963 b, 1964 a, 1964 b). La naissance des galeries sur des joints de stratification est très souvent cachée par incasion (lat. incadere = s'effondrer dans une cavité) qui fait ressortir des diaclases et le clivage qui ne participent en rien à la naissance de la galerie souterraine, ce qui a provoqué des conclusions eronnées.

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Stilpnomelan aus dem „Oberharzer Diabaszug“, Deutschland

An unusual paragenesis of stilpnomelane with ilvaite produced by hydrothermal reaction with the siliceous hematite ores of the Oberharzer Diabaszug is first described.

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Meinem Freund, Herrn Prof. Dr. Hilmar Schumann zum 70. Geburtstag gewidmet.     

Variation of seismic coupling with slab detachment and upper plate structure along the western Hellenic subduction zone

The western Hellenic subduction zone is characterized by a trenchward velocity of the upper plate. In the Ionian islands segment, complete seismic coupling is achieved, as is predicted by standard plate-tectonic models in which there is no slab pull force because the slab has broken off. The moderate local seismic moment rate relates to a shallow downdip limit for the seismogenic interface. This characteristic may be attributed to the ductility of the lower crust of the upper plate, which allows a décollement between the upper crust of the overriding plate and the subducting plate. Farther south, a deeper downdip limit of the seismogenic interface is indicated by thrust-faulting earthquakes, which persist much deeper in western Crete. A correspondingly larger downdip width of this seismogenic zone is consistent with the suggested larger maximum magnitude of earthquakes here. However, since the seismic moment release rate seems to be moderate in the Peloponnese and western Crete, like in in the Ionian islands, this seismically active interface cannot maintain complete seismic coupling across its larger downdip width. A cause may be the lateral addition of overweight to the part of the slab still attached in Crete, by the free fall of its part that has broken off from the surface further north. This increased slab pull reduces the compressive normal stress across the seismogenic interface and thus causes partial seismic coupling in its shallower part. However, the width of this part may provide an additional area contributing to slip in large earthquakes, which may nucleate deeper on stick-slip parts of the interface. Hints at anomalies in structure and seismicity, which need to be resolved, may relate to the present location of the edge of the tear in the slab.     

Repeated Aqueous Flooding from the Cerberus Fossae: Evidence for Very Recently Extant, Deep Groundwater on Mars

The geomorphology and topography of the Cerberus Plains region of Mars show three spatially and temporally distinct, young, aqueous flood channel systems. Flood geomorphology in each of these channels, as seen in Mars Orbiter Camera images, consists of streamlined forms, longitudinal lineations, and a single occurrence of transverse dunes, features similar to those in the flood-carved terrain of the Channeled Scabland in the northwestern United States. As additional geomorphic evidence of flooding, small cones (interpreted as phreatic) are found preferentially in the channels or at their distal ends. Glaciers, lava flows, and CO₂-charged density flows are each inconsistent with these geomorphic features. Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter data show two of the three channel systems (Athabasca Valles and an unnamed northern channel system) emanating from the Cerberus Fossae; we suggest that the third channel system (Marte Vallis) also originated at the fissures. The discharges for two of the three systems (Athabasca Valles and Marte Vallis) have been estimated from surface topography to have been on the order of 10⁶ m³/s. Crater counts indicate that the channels are not only young (extreme Late Amazonian), but also were carved asynchronously. Geomorphic evidence suggests that two of the channels (Athabasca and Marte Valles) experienced more than one flood. Emanation from volcanotectonic fissures instead of chaotic terrain distinguishes these Cerberus Plains channels from the larger, older circum-Chryse channels. Groundwater must have collected in a liquid state prior to flood onset to flow at the estimated discharge rates. Lack of large-scale subsidence near the channels' origination points along the Cerberus Fossae indicates that this groundwater was at least several kilometers deep.     

Stress, failure and fluid flow deduced from earthquakes accompanying eruptions at Piton de la Fournaise volcano

In the present episode of eruptive activity, evidence from seismicity for sustained magma inflow from depth into the edifice of Piton de la Fournaise is lacking. Pre-eruptive main deformation and shallow seismicity help to identify very small volumes of magma that are in motion beneath the rim of the Dolomieu summit crater, and oriented along the azimuth of the future vents. Small magma pockets may reside in the cone above sea level, or may be expelled repeatedly, due to crystallisation in a small, low-velocity, aseismic region below sea level under the high-velocity central plug of the cone in which pre-eruptive earthquake swarms are located. In cross-section the hypocentres define two steep sheets diverging from the aseismic zone at sea level towards 1.5 km above sea level (or 1 km beneath the 2632 m high cone). However, failure induced by increased pressure in the suggested chamber does not account for the observed focal mechanisms.The occurrence and timing of magma transport are attested by eruption, and seismic activity may be related to magma transport. Focal mechanisms document strike-slip, not normal faulting or tensile failure. Vertical propagation of the edge of a feeder dike may enhance strike-slip motion above the edge, in a region where effective normal stress is decreased by thermally induced groundwater flow. The strike-slip mechanisms could also be caused by a tensile-shear widening of the horizontal section of vertical conduits.Fournaise strike-slip earthquakes occur in two orientations, with P axes orthogonal between them, within a single pre-eruptive event. Earthquakes are distributed in the same volume but mechanisms switch from one to another type systematically with time, indicating a reversal of stress conditions. The orientations of P axes with respect to the epicentral trend suggest that in the later parts of events leading to eruptions, a compression of the medium occurs after a dilation in the first part. The activated zone might respond successively to the arrival and the departure of the magma on its way from the reservoir at depth to the vent, radial to the cone.     

Multi-chronometric ages and origin of Archaean tonalitic gneisses in Finnish Lapland: A case for long crustal residence time

The Tojottamanselkä gneisses of the Koitelainen region, northern Finland, have been dated by the Sm-Nd and the common Pb methods. The Sm-Nd data of seven samples from a small area (100 m × 100 m) define an isochron ofT=3.06±0.12 (2) Ga, with correspondingI _Nd=0.50848±9 (2), or _Nd(T)=–3.7±1.8. This age is in good agreement with the zircon U-Pb discordia age (3.1 Ga) reported by Kröner et al. (1981) and is interpreted as the time of magmatic emplacement. The distinctly negative _Nd(T) value is found for the first time for Archean tonalitic gneisses and implies derivation of these magmas by remelting of continental material with a long (200–500 Ma) crustal residence time. A few samples, on the other hand, possess _Nd(T) values close to zero, hence they are thought to be derived by partial melting of basaltic sources with nearchondritic REE distribution patterns.Common Pb isotopic data yield an isochron age of 2.64±0.24 (2) Ga which is in agreement, within error limit, with the published Rb-Sr isochron age of 2.73±0.24 Ga (Kröner et al. 1981). The age of ca. 2.7 Ga is interpreted as the time of regional metamorphism during which both Pb and Sr isotopes were rehomogenised.The tonalitic gneisses have highly fractionated REE patterns with (La/Yb)_N ratios varying from 9 to 43. Like most Archean gneisses of TTG composition (tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite), they could be derived by partial melting of crustal sources of basaltic to granodioritic compositions. Direct derivation by melting of mantle peridotites is excluded.The present geochemical study indicates that the Tojottamanselkä gneisses have had a very complex history that involved multi-stage development. Together with the published age data for the basement gneisses and greenstone belts of eastern central Finland (Vidal et al. 1980; Martin et al. 1983a), we conclude that the Archean crustal development in Finland started at least 3.5 Ga ago and passed through a series of magmatic and metamorphic events at 3.1, 2.85, 2.65 and 2.5 Ga before the final intrusions of K-rich granites about 2.4 Ga ago.     

Detrital footprint of the Mozambique ocean: U–Pb SHRIMP and Pb evaporation zircon geochronology of metasedimentary gneisses in eastern Madagascar

The southern East African Orogen is a collisional belt where the identification of major suture zones has proved elusive. In this study, we apply U–Pb isotopic techniques to date detrital zircons from a key part of the East African Orogen, analyse their possible source region and discuss how this information can help in unravelling the orogen.U–Pb sensitive high-mass resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) and Pb evaporation analyses of detrital zircons from metasedimentary rocks in eastern Madagascar reveal that: (1) the protoliths of many of these rocks were deposited between 800 and 550 Ma; and (2) these rocks are sourced from regions with rocks that date back to over 3400 Ma, with dominant age populations of 3200–3000, 2650, 2500 and 800–700 Ma.The Dharwar Craton of southern India is a potential source region for these sediments, as here rocks date back to over 3400 Ma and include abundant gneissic rocks with protoliths older than 3000 Ma, sedimentary rocks deposited at 3000–2600 Ma and granitoids that crystallised at 2513–2552 Ma. The 800–700 Ma zircons could potentially be sourced from elsewhere in India or from the Antananarivo Block of central Madagascar in the latter stages of closure of the Mozambique Ocean. The region of East Africa adjacent to Madagascar in Gondwana reconstructions (the Tanzania craton) is rejected as a potential source as there are no known rocks here older than 3000 Ma, and no detrital grains in our samples sourced from Mesoproterozoic and early Neoproterozoic rocks that are common throughout central east Africa. In contrast, coeval sediments 200 km west, in the Itremo sheet of central Madagascar, have detrital zircon age profiles consistent with a central East African source, suggesting that two late Neoproterozoic provenance fronts pass through east Madagascar at approximately the position of the Betsimisaraka suture. These observations support an interpretation that the Betsimisaraka suture separates rocks that were derived from different locations within, or at the margins of, the Mozambique Ocean basin and therefore, that the suture is the site of subduction of a strand of Mozambique Ocean crust.     

Coupled evolution of back-arc and island arc-like mafic crust in the late-Neoproterozoic Agardagh Tes-Chem ophiolite, Central Asia: evidence from trace element and Sr–Nd–Pb isotope data

. We report major-element, trace-element and isotopic data of volcanic rocks from the late-Neoproterozoic (570 Ma) Agardagh Tes-Chem ophiolite in Central Asia, south-west of Lake Baikal (50.5°N, 95°E). The majority of samples are high-alumina basalts and basaltic andesites having island-arc affinities. They were derived from an evolved parental magma (Mg#̾.60, Cr~180 ppm, Ni~95 ppm) by predominantly clinopyroxene fractionation. The parental magma developed from a primary mantle melt by fractionation of about 12% of an olivine+spinel assemblage. The island-arc rocks have high abundances of incompatible trace elements (light rare-earth element abundances up to 100 times chondritic, chondrite-normalised (La/Yb)_n=14.6-5.1) and negative Nb anomalies (Nb/La=0.37-0.62), but low Zr/Nb ratios (7-14). Initial )_Nd values are around +5.5, initial Pb isotopic compositions are ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb=17.39-18.45, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb=15.49-15.61, ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb=37.06-38.05. Enrichment of large-ion lithophile elements within this group is significant (Ba/La=11-130). Another group of samples consists of back-arc basin-related volcanic rocks. They are most likely derived from the same depleted mantle source as the island-arc rocks, but underwent higher degrees of melting (8-15%) and are not influenced by slab components. They have lower abundances of incompatible trace elements, flat rare-earth element patterns [(La/Yb)_n=0.6-2.4] and higher )_Nd values (+7.8 to +8.5). Negative Nb anomalies are absent (Nb/La=0.81-1.30), but Zr/Nb is high (21-48). At least three components are necessary to explain the geochemical evolution of the volcanic rocks: (1) an enriched (ocean island-like) component characterised by a high Nb concentration (up to 30 ppm), an absent negative Nb anomaly, a low Zr/Nb ratio (~6.5), a low )_Nd value (around 0), and radiogenic ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb; (2) a back-arc basin component similar to N-MORB with a flat rare-earth element pattern and a high )_Nd value (around +8.5); and (3) an island-arc component from a mantle source which was modified by the downgoing slab. Crystal fractionation superimposed on mixing and source contamination by subducted sediments is suitable to explain the observed geochemical data. The most likely geodynamic environment to produce these characteristics is a young, intra-oceanic island-arc system and an associated back-arc basin.