Accretionary rims on inclusions in the Allende meteorite

Many inclusions in Allende, particularly those with irregular shapes, are surrounded by a sequence of thin layers which differ from one another in texture, mineralogy and mineral-chemistry. The layer underlying all others contains either: IA, pyroxene needles + olivine + clumps of hedenbergite and andradite; IB, olivine doughnuts; or IC, rectangular olivine crystals. The next layer outward, II, contains tiny (<5 μm) olivine plates and Layer III large (5–10 μm) olivine laths. The final layer, IV, occurs as clumps of andradite + hedenbergite surrounded by magnesium-rich pyroxene needles. It separates Layer III from the Allende matrix which is more poorly sorted and more sulfide-rich than Layer III. Nepheline and iron sulfide are common constituents of most layers, the latter being particularly fine-grained and abundant in Layer II. Although not every layer is present on every inclusion, the sequence of layers is constant. Evidence that the rims are accretionary aggregates includes the presence of highly disequilibrium mineral assemblages and the fact that they are highly porous masses consisting of many euhedral crystals with few intergrowths. In addition, the layers are thickest in topographic hollows on the surfaces of inclusions and the inner layers are absent or discontinuous beyond such irregularities, suggesting that the probability of accretion of crystals was low initially, except in pockets, and became greater later, after a soft cushion of accreted condensate crystals had already formed. Separation of assemblages of different mineralogy, mineral-chemistry and texture into different rim layers seems best explained by nebular models in which long, slow cooling histories allow differentiation during condensation by grain/gas separation processes.     

The attenuation of chemical elements in acidic leachates from coal mineral wastes by soils

The chemical attenuation of acidity and selected elements (aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, fluorine, iron, manganese, nickel, and zinc) in acidic leachates from coal mineral wastes by four natural subsurface soils has been investigated using laboratory column methods Leachate solutions were allowed to percolate through the soils under simulated natural flow conditions, and the elemental concentrations in the influents and effluents were measured periodically Elemental retentions were substantial for all species except managanese, which was eluted in excess from all soils except the most calcareous Two processes appeared to operate in decreasing influent concentrations: (1) precipitation of solid phases caused by increased pH of the leachate as it percolated through the soil, and (2) adsorption of elements onto exchange and sorption sites naturally present in the soil and on iron and aluminum oxide precipitates formed in situ from leachate components because of the increased pH The soil property most important in retention was its alkalinity Thus, carbonaceous soils provide the best control material for acidic leachates from coal mineral wastes. Results show that natural soils can substantially reduce pollutant fluxes to the environment from acidic coal waste dumps and should be considered when selecting waste disposal sites Performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy     

Micro Computers Applied to Ground Water Monitoring and Testing

Micro computers have been demonstrated to be a most valuable, cost-effective means of long- and short-term data acquisition for ground water investigations and installations. A system can readily be assembled for the cost of labor saved in the field, or for the same cost as other conventional instruments, which perform only a fraction of the functions of the computer system
Documented in this article are systems which have been developed and used for simultaneous monitoring of several wells during aquifer tests, and systems installed for long-term monitoring of piezometric surface fluctuations. Both systems can be contained in a small suitcase or insulated cooler. Specific features of the systems include multiple channel capacity, one-month maintenance period, variable computer controlled reading intervals, magnetic tape data storage, data reduction and analysis capabilities while maintaining monitoring, graphic display of time and measurements, hard copy capability and barometric pressure change corrections.
Other applications are examined for the complete control of pumping tests, including pumping rate; in situ permeability tests; monitoring changes; and even strain. The pressure transducer system may also be applied for river gauging and current measurement.     

Determination of evaporation from integrated profiles of humidity and temperature over an inhomogeneous surface

In this study a moderate-sized alfalfa field was downwind of a large dry region. Measured vertical profiles of temperature, humidity and wind at upwind and downwind sides of the field were used to calculate the short-term evaporation rate, as well as the contribution of horizontally transported or advected heat energy to the evaporation. The vertical profiles must be measured at least to the height at which air is modified by the new surface. In this case that height was as large as 18 m over a several hundred meter long traverse.Evaporation rates calculated by such an approach were in very close agreement to surface fluxes measured by an eddy correlation system near the surface. The difference between calculated and measured values averaged 9.5%. The reduction in sensible heat content of the air of the control volume was substantial during passage over the field. If all this energy was assumed to have been used in evaporation, then the advection of heat contributed from 35 to 86% of the total evaporation rate.It appears that for an inhomogeneous surface, knowledge of the distortion of some properties of local boundary layers can yield reliable estimates of local evaporation. The approach has little empiricism as it is based on simple conservation laws.     

Bank conditions and erosion along selected reservoirs

This analysis was done as the preliminary step in an ongoing study of reservoir bank erosion processes that are active in the northern U.S. The objectives of this analysis were to observe and document bank characteristics, conditions, and changes along reservoirs with eroding banks, to estimate the amounts of historical bank recession and to discuss its possible causes. Aerial photographs were used to observe the historical bank changes and estimate bank recession. Site reconnaissance, discussions with on-site personnel, and published reports were used to evaluate possible relationships between the local erosion and bank conditions. As part of this analysis linear regressions were done to determine if the estimated recession rates correlate with selected bank and climatic conditions and with physical characteristics of the reservoirs. The regression results, however, were generally not useful because they suggested relationships that are contrary to field observations and published results. Dominant bank erosion processes were wind-wave erosion, capillary wave erosion during high-water periods, groundwater-induced sliding, freeze-thaw processes, rain splash and rainwash, and boat waves. However, because of the complexity of the interrelationships of these and many other bank erosion processes and the variability of the processes at and between sites, it would be necessary to make site-specific measurements and observations year-round to evaluate the processes that are active along a particular bank.     

The ilmenite/titano-magnetite assemblage: kinetics of re-equilibration

Compositions of coexisting ilmenite and titano-magnetite commonly have been used to establish the conditions of formation for igneous and metamorphic rocks (Buddington-Lindsley geothermometer/oxybarometer). Temperatures so determined for some rocks are lower than might be expected for magmatic crystallization. These low temperatures are the result of re-equilibration of the Fe-Ti oxides during slow cooling. This process is one in which titano-magnetites are oxidized and ilmenites are reduced upon cooling along a buffer curve or in the presence of a fluid of constant composition. Textural studies indicate that the reduction of the ilmenite-hematite phase may be the slower reaction consequently, the rate-controlling step of the re-equilibration.The kinetics of the reduction reactions in the two-phase region between the joins for the ilmenite-hematite and magnetite-ulvöspinel solid solution series were studied by thermogravimetric analysis at controlledf_O2. With experiments conducted near the Ni/NiO and QFM buffers, annealed ilmenite(ss) synthetic charges were reduced isothermally. The temperature range for the experiments was 900–1250°C, with total gas-flow rates of 0.35 and 1.0 cm/s. Kinetic data were collected by measuring the weight change during each experiment as a function of time. Additionally, a cooling-rate (0.5°C/hr) experiment was conducted near the QFM buffer from 1150 to 985°C starting with an ilmenite-saturated spinel phase.At 1200°C and 0.35 cm/s flow rate, the reaction mechanism is an interfacial process where mass transport of the reacting gases is the rate-controlling step. In isothermal experiments at 1100°C and lower, diffusion of reactants through a solid product layer was the controlling mechanism. The activation energy for this diffusion process is 59±6 kcal/mole. Significant enhancement of diffusion occurs along grain boundaries.Although the individual phases may re-equilibrate internally upon cooling, the Fe-Ti contents must remain unchanged for proper use of this mineral indicator-i.e. no external re-equilibration. It is imperative that the kinetics of the situation be appreciated. These preliminary kinetic experiments indicate that extreme caution must be exercised when applying this ilmenite/titano-magnetite geothermometer/oxybarometer. These phases may only truly “quench” in the parameters of formation in the case of certain hypabyssal and extrusive occurrences     

Effects of a change of terrain height and roughness on a wind profile

We have measured profiles of an onshore wind 200 m upwind and 200 m downwind from an abruptly rising shore using a remote-sensing Doppler lidar anemometer. Data were taken at heights between 4.7 and 66.5 m above sea level. Results show that the onshore velocity vector slopes upward 16.6 to 9.6°, the amount depending on the height of measurement, due to the combined effects of a 1.7-m high bluff shoreline and the frictionally decelerated flow over land. The profile 200 m inland has the expected deceleration at lower levels because of increased surface roughness and implies a velocity vector at 66.5 m height with an upward slope of approximately 18° (2.6 m s^-1 upward component, 8.4 m s^-1 vector magnitude), an acceleration to 0.3 m s^-1 greater than the upwind value, or a combination of both effects. All three options are consistent with mass continuity. The experiment exhibits the usefulness and limitations of a backscatter Doppler lidar for boundary-layer profile measurements in a horizontally inhomogeneous environment.