2D finite-difference viscoelastic wave modelling including surface topography

We have pursued two-dimensional (2D) finite-difference (FD) modelling of seismic scattering from free-surface topography. Exact free-surface boundary conditions for the particle velocities have been derived for arbitrary 2D topographies. The boundary conditions are combined with a velocity–stress formulation of the full viscoelastic wave equations. A curved grid represents the physical medium and its upper boundary represents the free-surface topography. The wave equations are numerically discretized by an eighth-order FD method on a staggered grid in space, and a leap-frog technique and the Crank–Nicholson method in time.
In order to demonstrate the capabilities of the surface topography modelling technique, we simulate incident point sources with a sinusoidal topography in seismic media of increasing complexities. We present results using parameters typical of exploration surveys with topography and heterogeneous media. Topography on homogeneous media is shown to generate significant scattering. We show additional effects of layering in the medium, with and without randomization, using a von Kármán realization of apparent anisotropy. Synthetic snapshots and seismograms indicate that prominent surface topography can cause back-scattering, wave conversions and complex wave patterns which are usually discussed in terms of inter-crust heterogeneities.     

Deterministic decomposition of pitch-and-roll buoy measurements

Wave-gauge arrays, current meters and pitch-and-roll buoys are widely used for the recording of directional properties of ocean waves. For the determination of directional spectra the traditional stochastic procedure usually includes the selection of a parameterized spreading function. The present theory, which is illustrated below for a pitch-and-roll buoy, decomposes the information into frequencies, amplitudes, directions, and also phases. Furthermore, this procedure requires no assumption of any function describing the expected form of the directional spread. The theory of this deterministic decomposition is described and compared to the traditional stochastic principles. Only for reasons of this comparison and presentation, the deterministically obtained directional distributions are fitted to normal distributions.Measurements taken by pitch-and-roll buoys and by current meter/wave gauge are presented and discussed. The remarkable tendency in the variation of the directional spread as a function of frequency is found for two quite different locations. To quantify the directional spread obtained from the deterministic method normal distributions are fitted, and the mean values and variances are plotted and discussed.     

Short-term variations in trace metal concentrations in the baltic

Baltic surface water was sampled at a fixed position at intervals of a few hours. The trace metal concentrations were measured by graphite furnace AAS after extraction. The mean concentrations found were (ng l^?1): Cd, 30 ± 2.7; Cu, 800 ± 48; Fe, 358 ± 165; Ni, 820 ± 49; Pb, 16 ± 4.5; Zn, 900 ± 160. The variability in the trace metal concentrations is of the same order of magnitude as the precision of the method. Thus, no spatial variations in trace metal concentrations were found.     

The national atlases of Finland

The first edition of Atlas of Finland was published in 1899, and since then four more editions have appeared, the fifth started in 1977. The two first editions (the second appeared in 1910) were published in order to define the identity of the nation during a time of Russian political opression and a nationalistic awakening. During the same period, in 1901 J. Gebhard published a social-statistical atlas of Finland, likewise a work of scholarly pioneering. The third edition of Atlas of Finland appeared in 1925, here the geographical analysis was much enhanced thanks to the editorial work of J.G. Granö. At this time Finland was still predominately an agrarian state, however, when the forth edition of the Finnish national atlas was published in 1960, the wind of change had set in. Prof. Leo Aario was the leader of this edition, where the deep changes after WW II were documentated,3also the beginning of the rapi d industrialization of the country.The fifth edition is published in separate thematic folios of some 25 pages each. The first folio on Forestry was published in 1977, and so far 4 folios have appeared of a total of 25. In each folio the graphic material and the text are integrated. There will be some 1 500 statistical maps, most of them on the scale of 1:8 mill., about 10 maps on the scale of 1:1 mill. will be included. The editorial work is organized in connection with the National Board of Survey of Finland, which has also the responsibility for the printing and marketing of the atlas. The fifth edition should be finished in 1986. At the same time the work on the next edition should be on its way.     

The determination of Cd,Cu, Fe,Ni, Pb and Zn in Baltic Sea water

Cd, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb and Zn were determined in 123 samples from the Baltic Sea proper. The trace metals were extracted directly on board the vessel, using a dithiocarbamate-Freon procedure. Final analyses of the extracts are performed onshore by atomic absorption spectrometry.Similar trace-metal concentrations are found in different areas of the Baltic proper. Most values fall in the following ranges: Cd, 30–60 ng 1^?1; Cu, 0.6–1.0 μg 1^?1; Fe, 0.3–0.9 μg 1^?1; Ni, 0.6–0.9 μg 1^?1; Pb, 0.05–0.2 μg 1^?1; and Zn, 1.5–3.5 μg 1^?1. The metal-concentrations are generally independent of depth. However, copper exhibits a small but significent decrease in concentration below 80 m.Filtration did not affect trace-metal concentrations, with the exception of iron in waters from lower layers. Similarly, storage under acid conditions was shown to affect only the concentration of iron. An electro-chemical technique was also used to determine Cu in some samples.     

Physical and biological characteristics of the pelagic system across Fram Strait to Kongsfjorden

The Fram Strait is very important with regard to heat and mass exchange in the Arctic Ocean, and the large quantities of heat carried north by the West Spitsbergen Current (WSC) influence the climate in the Arctic region as a whole. A large volume of water and ice is transported through Fram Strait, with net water transport of 1.7–3.2 Sv southward in the East Greenland Current and a volume ice flux in the range of 0.06–0.11 Sv. The mean annual ice flux is about 866,000 km² yr⁻¹. The Kongsfjorden–Krossfjorden fjord system on the coast of Spitsbergen, or at the eastern extreme of Fram Strait, is mainly affected by the northbound transport of water in the WSC. Mixing processes on the shelf result in Transformed Atlantic Water in the fjords, and the advection of Atlantic water also carries boreal fauna into the fjords. The phytoplankton production is about 80 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ in Fram Strait, and has been estimated both below and above this for Kongsfjorden. The zooplankton fauna is diverse, but dominated in terms of biomass by calanoid copepods, particularly Calanus glacialis and C. finmarchicus. Other important copepods include C. hyperboreus, Metridia longa and the smaller, more numerous Pseudocalanus (P. minutus and P. acuspes), Microcalanus (M. pusillus and M. pygmaeus) and Oithona similis. The most important species of other taxa appear to be the amphipods Themisto libellula and T. abyssorum, the euphausiids Thysanoessa inermis and T. longicaudata and the chaetognaths Sagitta elegans and Eukrohnia hamata. A comparison between the open ocean of Fram Strait and the restricted fjord system of Kongsfjorden–Krossfjorden can be made within limitations. The same species tend to dominate, but the Fram Strait zooplankton fauna differs by the presence of meso- and bathypelagic copepods. The seasonal and inter-annual variation in zooplankton is described for Kongsfjorden based on the record during July 1996–2002. The ice macrofauna is much less diverse, consisting of a handful of amphipod species and the polar cod. The ice-associated biomass transport of ice-amphipods was calculated, based on the ice area transport, at about 3.55 × 10⁶ ton wet weight per year or about 4.2 × 10⁵ t C yr⁻¹. This represents a large energy input to the Greenland Sea, but also a drain on the core population residing in the multi-year pack ice (MYI) in the Arctic Ocean. A continuous habitat loss of MYI due to climate warming will likely reduce dramatically the sympagic food source. The pelagic and sympagic food web structures were revealed by stable isotopes. The carbon sources of particulate organic matter (POM), being Ice-POM and Pelagic-POM, revealed different isotopic signals in the organisms of the food web, and also provided information about the sympagic–pelagic and pelagic–benthic couplings. The marine food web and energy pathways were further determined by fatty acid trophic markers, which to a large extent supported the stable isotope picture of the marine food web, although some discrepancies were noted, particularly with regard to predator–prey relationships of ctenophores and pteropods.     

Seasonal food web structures and sympagic-pelagic coupling in the European Arctic revealed by stable isotopes and a two-source food web model

We simultaneously followed stable carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) isotopes in a two-source food web model to determine trophic levels and the relative importance of open water- and ice-associated food sources (phytoplankton vs. ice algae) in the lower marine food web in the European Arctic during four seasons. The model is based upon extensive seasonal data from 1995 to 2001.Phytoplankton, represented by samples of particulate organic matter from open water (Pelagic-POM) and ice algae, represented by samples from the underside of the ice (Ice-POM), were isotopically different. Ice-POM was generally dominated by the typical ice diatoms Nitzschia frigida and Melosira arctica and was more enriched than Pelagic-POM in ¹³C (δ¹³C = −20‰ vs. −24‰), but less enriched in ¹⁵N (δ¹⁵N = 1.8‰ vs. 4.0‰). However, when dominated by pelagic algae, Ice-POM was enriched in ¹³C and ¹⁵N similarly to Pelagic-POM.The derived trophic enrichment factors for δ¹⁵N (Δ_N = 3.4‰) and δ¹³C (Δ_C = 0.6‰) were similar in both pelagic and sympagic (ice-associated) systems, although the Δ_C for the sympagic system was variable.Trophic level (TL) range for zooplankton (TL = 1.8-3.8) was similar to that of ice fauna (TL = 1.9-3.7), but ice amphipods were generally less enriched in δ¹⁵N than zooplankton, reflecting lower δ¹⁵N in Ice-POM compared to Pelagic-POM. For bulk zooplankton, TLs and carbon sources changed little seasonally, but the proportion of herbivores was higher during May-September than in October and March. Overall, we found that the primary carbon source for zooplankton was Pelagic-POM (mean 74%), but depending on species, season and TL, substantial carbon (up to 50%) was supplied from the sympagic system. For bulk ice fauna, no major changes were found in TLs or carbon sources from summer to autumn. The primary carbon source for ice fauna was Ice-POM (mean 67%), although ice fauna with TL > 3 (adult Onisimus nanseni and juvenile polar cod) primarily utilized a pelagic food source.     

Ordovician conodonts of the Tarim Region, Xinjiang, China: Occurrence and use as paleoenvironment indicators

A review of the distribution of different Ordovician conodont faunas in eight areas of the Tarim Region shows that these conodont faunas can be classified into the North China and South China types. The North China type is characterized by Aurilobodus leptosomatus, A. aurilobodus, A. simplex, Tangshanodus tanshanensis, Loxodus dissectus, Parasseratognathus paltodiformis, Microcoelodus symmetricus, Belodina compressa, B. confluens, Pseudobelodina dispansa, Yaoxianognathus yaoxianensis, and Taoqupognathus blandus. These were adapted to shallow, warm-water environments. The South China type is represented by the genera Amorphognathus, Baltoniodus, Cahabagnathus, Eoplacognathus, Lenodus, Microzarkodina, Oepikodus, Paroistodus, Paracordylodus, Periodon, Polonodus, and Pygodus, which were adapted to outer shelf, deeper, and colder water environments. Using the general pattern of conodont distribution, it is possible to interpret the various depositional environments and to reconstruct broad changes in palaeogeography of the Tarim Region during Ordovician time. In general, during Tremadocian to early Middle Ordovician time, most of the Tarim Region was a shallow semi-restricted platform that became deeper towards the north and east, with an open platform in Kalping and in the northern part of Taklimakan Desert. A slope and deep basin existed in the current Tianshan Mountains region. The Tarim sea was shallow during the Early Ordovician and became deeper during “Caradocian” (Sandbian and Early Katian) time, to become shallow again during “Ashgillian” (Late Katian) time, with the exception of part of central Taklimakan, which was a land area during “Caradocian” (Sandbian and Early Katian) time.     

Emission rating: Trials of engines in the fjord ferries

Transport authorities, engine manufacturers and operators, together with researchers from Norwegian Marine Technology Research Institute (MARINTEK), have carried out work to document, by practical tests, emission reduction effects by a simple emission rating of marine propulsion diesel engines in Norwegian car-carrying ferries. The tests were carried out on four individual ferries, all representative of the fleet linking up national roads in coastal areas of Norway. The demonstration project gave valuable information on the potential decrease in emissions by a simple emission rating of propulsion engines. It also quantified the verified circumstances that otherwise easily could have been regarded as allegations. It put the control of emissions on the agenda of the ferry industry, and further work is being planned.     

Seasonal and spatial changes in the zooplankton community of Kongsfjorden, Svalbard

Seasonal changes in the zooplankton composition of the glacially influenced Kongsfjorden, Svalbard (79°N, 12°E), and its adjacent shelf were studied in 2002. Samples were collected in the spring, summer and autumn in stratified hauls (according to hydrographic characteristics), by means of a 0.180-mm Multi Plankton Sampler. A strong front between the open sea and the fjord waters was observed during the spring, preventing water mass exchange, but was not observed later in the season. The considerable seasonal changes in zooplankton abundance were related to the seasonal variation in hydrographical regime. The total zooplankton abundance during the spring (40–2010 individuals m⁻³) was much lower than in the summer and autumn (410–10 560 individuals m⁻³). The main factors shaping the zooplankton community in the fjord include: the presence of a local front, advection, the flow pattern and the decreasing depth of the basin in the inner fjord. Presumably these factors regulate the gross pattern of zooplankton density and distribution, and override the importance of biological processes. This study increased our understanding of seasonal processes in fjords, particularly with regard to the strong seasonal variability in the Arctic.