Numerical simulation of a high-speed landslide in Chenjiaba,Beichuan, China

High-speed landslide is a catastrophic geological disaster in the mountainous area of southwest China. To predict the movement process of landslide reactivation in Chenjiaba town, Beichuan county, Sichuan province, China, we simulated the movement process of two landslide failures in Chenjiaba via rapid mass movement simulation and unmanned aerial vehicle images(UAV), and obtained the movement characteristic parameters of the landslides. According to a back analysis, the most remarkable fitting rheological parameters were friction coefficient(μ=0.18) and turbulence(). The parameter of landslide pressure was applied as the zoning index of landslide hazard to obtain the influence zone and hazard zoning map of the Chenjiaba landslide. Results show that the Duba River was blocked quickly with a landslide accumulation at the maximum height of 44.14 mwhen the Chenjiaba deposits lost stability. The hazard zoning map indicated that the landslide hazard degree is positively correlated with the slope.This landslide assessment is a quantitative hazard assessment method based on a landslide movement process and is suitable for high-speed landslide. Such method can provide a scientific basis for urban construction and planning in the landslide hazard area to avoid hazards effectively.     

Rapid susceptibility mapping of co-seismic landslides triggered by the 2013 Lushan Earthquake using the regression model developed for the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake

The primary objective of landslide susceptibility mapping is the prediction of potential landslides in landslide-prone areas.The predictive power of a landslide susceptibility mapping model could be tested in an adjacent area of similar geoenvironmental conditions to find out the reliability.Both the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake and the 2013 Lushan Earthquake occurred in the Longmen Mountain seismic zone,with similar topographical and geological conditions.The two earthquakes are both featured by thrust fault and similar seismic mechanism.This paper adopted the susceptibility mapping model of co-seismic landslides triggered by Wenchuan earthquake to predict the spatial distribution of landslides induced by Lushan earthquake.Six influencing parameters were taken into consideration: distance from the seismic fault,slope gradient,lithology,distance from drainage,elevation and Peak Ground Acceleration(PGA).The preliminary results suggested that the zones with high susceptibility of coseismic landslides were mainly distributed in the mountainous areas of Lushan,Baoxing and Tianquan counties.The co-seismic landslide susceptibility map was completed in two days after the quake and sent to the field investigators to provide guidance for rescue and relief work.The predictive power of the susceptibility map was validated by ROC curve analysis method using 2037 co-seismic landslides in the epicenter area.The AUC value of 0.710 indicated that the susceptibility model derived from Wenchuan Earthquake landslides showed good accuracy in predicting the landslides triggered by Lushan earthquake.     

The formation of the Wulipo landslide and the resulting debris flow in Dujiangyan City,China

The Wulipo landslide, triggered by heavy rainfall on July 10, 2013, transformed into debris flow,resulted in the destruction of 12 houses, 44 deaths, and 117 missing. Our systematic investigation has led to the following results and to a new understanding about the formation and evolution process of this hazard. The fundamental factors of the formation of the landslide are a high-steep free surface at the front of the slide mass and the sandstone-mudstone mixed stratum structure of the slope. The inducing factor of the landslide is hydrostatic and hydrodynamic pressure change caused by heavy continuous rainfall. The geological mechanical model of the landslide can be summarized as "instability-translational slide-tension fracture-collapse" and the formation mechanism as "translational landslide induced by heavy rainfall". The total volume of the landslide is 124.6×104 m3, and 16.3% of the sliding mass was dropped down from the cliff and transformed into debris flow during the sliding process, which enlarged 46.7% of the original sliding deposit area. The final accumulation area is found to be 9.2×104 m2. The hazard is a typical example of a disaster chain involving landslide and its induced debris flow. The concealment and disaster chain effect is the main reason for the heavy damage. In future risk assessment, it is suggested to enhance the research onpotential landslide identification for weakly intercalated slopes. By considering the influence of the behaviors of landslide-induced debris flow, the disaster area could be determined more reasonably.     

On the initiation,movement and deposition of a large landslide in Maoxian County,China

At 5 am 24 th June 2017, a catastrophic landslide hit Xinmo Village, Maoxian County, Sichuan Province, China. The slide mass rushed down from an altitude of 3400 m and traveled 2700 m in a high velocity. The 13 million m~3 deposition buried the whole village and caused about 100 deaths. The source area of the landslide is located in a high steep slope, average slope angle is 40o and maximal angle is 65o. The strata are interbedded Triassic Zagunao Formation metamorphic sandstone and slate with the dip slope angle of 45°. Based on high-resolution satellite remote sensing image, UAV image, DEM data, and field investigation, failure mechanism, travel features, and deposit characteristics were analyzed. The results showed that this landslide was influenced by Songpinggou Fault zone. According to the topography before the failure, the landslide is located in the back scarp of an antecedent landslide induced by Diexi Earthquake in 1933. The bedding slope provided potential rupture surface. Historical seismic activities and long-term gravitational deformation caused rock mass accumulated damages. Weathering and precipitation weakened the rock mass and finally induced shearing and tension failure. A huge block detached from the top rock slope, pushed the past landslide deposits in the middle part, rushed out of the slope bottom in a high velocity and buried the Xinmo Village. The rapid movement entrained and brought the soil into the Songping Gully which recoiled with and bounced back from the opposite mountain.     

Application of Hilbert-Huang Transform to the Analysis of the Landslides Triggered by the Wenchuan Earthquake

A steep rock hill with two side slopes located at DK30+256 of National Road 213 was used as a prototype for analysis. The full process from initial deformation to sliding of the slope during ground shaking was simulated by using a new Continuum-based Discrete Element Method. During the earthquake, when shaking amplitudes were lower,the stress concentration points firstly appeared at the top of the slip mass, and then some tension failure points appeared, followed by shear failure points. At the same time, both the instantaneous frequencies of accelerations in the bedrock and that in the slip mass basically stayed in two different ranges. The energy transmittance coefficients of the sliding surface also stayed in a high range. As the ground shaking lasted,the number of failure points gradually increased until landslide occurrence. The instantaneous frequencies of accelerations in the slip mass and the energy transmittance coefficients of sliding surface gradually decreased, and both finally converged to a lower range. And then, the reasons triggering landslides are analysis in the joint time-frequency domain using Hilbert-Huang Transform, as follows: the differences of distribution and dissipation of the earthquake energy and the inconsistency of movements between the slip mass and the bedrock were the two major influence factors.     

Long-term kinematics and mechanism of a deep-seated slow-moving debris slide near Wudongde hydropower station in Southwest China

Long-term kinematic research of slowmoving debris slide is rare despite of the widespread global distribution of this kind. This paper presents a study of the kinematics and mechanism of the Jinpingzi debris slide located on the Jinsha river bank in southwest China. This debris slide is known to have a volume of 27×106 m3 in active state for at least one century. Field survey and geotechnical investigation were carried out to define the structure of the landslide. The physical and mechanical properties of the landslide materials were obtained by in-situ and laboratory tests. Additionally, surface and subsurface displacements, as well as groundwater level fluctuations, were monitored since 2005. Movement features, especially the response of the landslide movement to rainfall, were analysed. Relationships between resisting forces and driving forces were analysed by using the limit equilibrium method assuming rigid-plastic frictional slip. The results confirmed a viscous component in the long-termcontinuous movement resulting in the quasioverconsolidated state of the slip zone with higher strength parameters than some other types of slowmoving landslides. Both surface and subsurface displacements showed an advancing pattern by the straight outwardly inclined(rather than gently or reversely inclined) slip zone, which resulted in low resistance to the entire sliding mass. The average surface displacement rate from 2005 to 2016 was estimated to be 0.19~0.87 mm/d. Basal sliding on the silty clay seam accounted for most of the deformation with different degrees of internal deformation in different parts. Rainfall was the predominant factor affecting the kinematics of Jinpingzi landslide while the role of groundwater level, though positive, was not significant. The response of the groundwater level to rainfall infiltration was not apparent. Unlike some shallow slow-moving earth flows or mudslides, whose behaviors are directly related to the phreatic groundwater level, the mechanism for Jinpingzi landslide kinematics is more likely related to the changing weight of the sliding mass and thedownslope seepage pressure in the shallow soil mass resulting from rainfall events.     

Rock characteristics and dynamic fragmentation process of the 2018 Daanshan rockslide in Beijing,China

This study investigated the failure mechanism associated with the rock mass structure and the dynamic fragmentation process of blocky rocks of the 2018 Daanshan rockslide that occurred on 11 August, 2018. It was found that the initially collapsed rock of this rockslide was partitioned along the unconformity and strata interfaces. We analyzed how the unique rock mass structure, coupled with the road cut and the antecedent rainfall, jointly resulted in its failure. Based on the rock types and geol...     

Spatial distribution of large-scale landslides induced by the 5.12 Wenchuan Earthquake

The 5.12 Wenchuan Earthquake in 2008 induced hundreds of large-scale landslides. This paper systematically analyzes 112 large-scale landslides (surface area > 50000 m2), which were identified by interpretation of remote sensing imagery and field investigations. The analysis suggests that the distribution of large-scale landslides is affected by the following four factors: (a) distance effect: 80% of studied large-scale landslides are located within a distance of 5 km from the seismic faults. The farther the distance to the faults, the lower the number of large-scale landslides; (b) locked segment effect: the large-scale landslides are mainly located in five concentration zones closely related with the crossing, staggering and transfer sections between one seismic fault section and the next one, as well as the end of the NE fault section. The zone with the highest concentration was the Hongbai-Chaping segment, where a great number of large-scale landslides including the two largest landslides were located. The second highest concentration of large-scale landslides was observed in the Nanba-Donghekou segment at the end of NE fault, where the Donghekou landslide and the Woqian landslide occurred; (c) Hanging wall effect: about 70% of the large-scale landslides occurred on the hanging wall of the seismic faults; and (d) direction effect: in valleys perpendicular to the seismic faults, the density of large-scale landslides on the slopes facing the seismic wave is obviously higher than that on the slopes dipping in the same direction as the direction of propagation of the seismic wave. Meanwhile, it is found that the sliding and moving directions of large-scale landslides are related to the staggering direction of the faults in each section. In Qingchuan County where the main fault activity was horizontal twisting and staggering, a considerable number of landslides showed the feature of sliding and moving in NE direction which coincides with the staggering direction of the seismic faults.     

Long-term activity of earthquake-induced landslides: A case study from Qionghai Lake Basin,Southwest of China

Earthquake-triggered landslides are a major geological hazard in the eastern Tibetan Plateau, and have prolonged impact on earth surface processes and fluvial system. To determine how long co-seismic landslides affect basins, a massive number of landslides existing in Qionghai Lake Basin were investigated for landslide distribution characteristics and geomorphological evidences, with further comparison and analysis using historic seismic analog method. The landslides found in Qionghai Lake Basin showed clear features of seismic triggering with strongly controlled by Zemuhe fault. These landslides are still active at present. Some new slides generally occur in ancient slope failure zones causing serious secondary hazards in recent years. In this study we strengthen the idea that the landslides triggered by the 185o Xichang earthquake （Ms7.5） have long term activity and prolonged impact on the mountain disasters with a period of more than 16o years. Our results support growing evidence that coseismic landslides have a prolonged effect on secondary disasters in a basin, and invite more careful consideration of the relationship between current basin condition and landslide history for a longer period.     

Characteristics and failure mechanism of an ancient earthquake-induced landslide with an extremely wide distribution area

The Lamuajue landslide is located in Lamuajue village on the right bank of the Meigu River,Sichuan Province, China. This landslide is an ancient landslide with an extremely wide distribution area,covering an area of 19 km~2 with a maximum width of5.5 km and an estimated residual volume of 3×10~8 m~3.The objectives of this study were to identify the characteristics and failure mechanism of this landslide. In this study,based on field investigations,aerial photography, and profile surveys, the boundary,lithology, structure of the strata, and characteristics of the landslide deposits were determined. A gently angled weak interlayer consisting of shale was the main factor contributing to the occurrence of the Lamuajue landslide. The deposition area can be divided into three zones: zone A is an avalanche deposition area mainly composed of blocks,fragments, and debris with diameters ranging from0.1 m to 3 m; zone B is a residual integrated rock mass deposition area with large blocks,boulders and "fake bedrock"; and zone C is a deposition zone of limestone blocks and fragments. Three types of failure mechanism were analyzed and combined to explain the Lamuajue landslide based on the features of the accumulation area. First, a shattering-sliding mechanism caused by earthquakes in zone A. Second,a sliding mechanism along the weak intercalation caused by gravity and water in zone B. Third,a shattering-ejection mechanism generated by earthquakes in zone C. The results provide a distinctive case for the study of gigantic landslides induced by earthquakes, which is very important for understanding and assessing ancient earthquakeinduced landslides.     

考虑软弱夹层控滑机制及其空间不确定性的顺层岩质滑坡易发性评价: 万州区铁峰乡应用研究

顺层岩质滑坡突发性强, 破坏性大, 是危害山区城镇安全的重要灾害类型之一。发育软弱夹层的顺向斜坡是顺层岩质滑坡的高发区, 区域顺层岩质滑坡易发性评价应融入软弱夹层的控滑机制和空间分布不确定性分析。以万州区铁峰乡为研究区, 在软弱夹层物质结构及空间分布详细调查的基础上, 分析了原生沉积、构造变形和表生改造作用下区内页岩和泥岩两类软弱夹层发展为滑动面的演化机理, 总结了顺层岩质滑坡的变形破坏机理。考虑软弱夹层空间分布的不确定性, 提出了软弱夹层垂向分布和有效控滑深度范围内软弱夹层控滑贡献度的计算模型。提取了软弱夹层类型和控滑贡献度等表征顺层岩质滑坡控滑结构的关键指标, 结合地形地貌、斜坡结构、水文地质及人类工程活动4类要素, 构建了顺层岩质滑坡易发性评价指标体系。针对万州区铁峰乡河谷南侧的顺向坡区段, 以斜坡为评价单元, 采用层次分析法对研究区顺层岩质滑坡开展了易发性评价。结果显示研究区内侏罗系珍珠冲组泥化夹层和自流井组页岩层是顺层岩质滑坡的主要控滑层位, 极高易发区和高易发区占比分别为9.7%和25.8%, 岩质斜坡单元下伏软弱夹层分布情况和斜坡前缘开挖情况是影响滑坡灾害易发性的主要因素, 建房和道路开挖等人类工程活动极易诱发顺层岩质滑坡灾害。与不考虑软弱夹层相关指标的易发性评价结果相比, 本文方法的结果更符合实际情况。      

大奔流顺层岩质滑坡溃屈型破坏力学机制研究

溃屈型破坏是顺层岩质边坡一种常见的破坏模式。以大奔流顺层岩质滑坡为例，分析了其溃屈型破坏的形成机制，绿泥石片岩层面发育程度和层面抗剪强度及岩石破碎程度是大奔流滑坡发生的主要地质因素，爆破震动荷载和地下水作用是发生溃屈型破坏的主要诱发因素。基于弹性板梁稳定理论和能量平衡原理，建立了顺层岩质滑坡溃屈型破坏力学模型；通过力学分析，提出了综合考虑滑坡自重、地下水与震动荷载作用的顺层岩质滑坡溃屈段长度条件方程。以大奔流滑坡为实例进行了验算，计算结果和现场破坏特征基本一致，表明了该方法的可行性，为研究顺层岩质滑坡溃屈型破坏的力学机制提供了依据。      

Landslide distribution and sliding mode control along the Anninghe fault zone at the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau

Tibetan Plateau is known as the roof of the world. Due to the continuous uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, many active fault zones are present. These active fault zones such as the Anninghe fault zone have a significant influence on the formation of special geomorphology and the distribution of geological hazards at the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. The Anninghe fault zone is a key part of the Y-shaped fault pattern in the Sichuan-Yunnan block of China. In this paper, high-resolution topographic data, multitemporal remote sensing images, numerical calculations, seismic records, and comprehensive field investigations were employed to study the landslide distribution along the active part of the Anninghe. The influence of active faults on the lithology, rock mass structures and slope stress fields were also studied. The results show that the faults within the Anninghe fault zone have damaged the structure and integrity of the slope rock mass, reduced the mechanical strength of the rock mass and controlled the slope failure modes. The faults have also controlled the stress field, the distribution of the plastic strain zone and the maximum shear strain zone of the slope, thus have promoted the formation and evolution of landslides. We find that the studied landslides are linearly distributed along the Anninghe fault zone, and more than 80% of these landslides are within 2-3 km of the fault rupture zone. Moreover, the Anninghe fault zone provides abundant substance for landslides or debris flows. This paper presents four types of sliding mode control of the Anninghe fault zone, e.g., constituting the whole landslide body, controlling the lateral boundary of the landslide, controlling the crown of the landslide, and constituting the toe of the landslide. The results presented merit close attention as a valuable reference source for local infrastructure planning and engineering projects.     

Dynamic process analysis of the Niumiangou landslide triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake using the finite difference method and a modified discontinuous deformation analysis

The Niumiangou landslide was the largest landslide triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, which was significantly affected by the amplification effect of seismic acceleration. The ringshear experiments indicated that the materials in the source area of the Niumiangou landslide were subjected to friction degradation under a big shear displacement, which may result in rapid movement of the landslide. In order to better understand the landslide movement and study the effect of the friction degradation on movement mechanisms, the dynamic process of Niumiangou landslide was simulated with a new numerical method, which combines the finite difference method(FDM) and the discontinuous deformation analysis(DDA). First, the FDM was used to study the initiation time, amplification effect and velocity of the landslide. Afterwards, these initiation velocities were applied to the blocks in the DDA model by corresponding coordination in the FDM model. A displacementdependent friction model of the sliding surface was incorporated into DDA code to further understand the kinetic behavior of the landslide. The results show that the displacement-dependent friction strongly decreases the friction coefficient of sliding surface under a big displacement, which can obviously promote the run-out and velocity of landslide. The model output well matches the topographic map formed by the landslide. This implies that the proposed model can be applied to the simulation of earthquake-induced landslides with amplification effect, and the friction degradation model is important to clarify the movement mechanism of high-speed and long-distance landslides.     

基于地震信号反演滑坡动力学机制

以2003年千将坪滑坡事件为例，基于地震信号分析大型高速滑坡启动之后的滑体运动特性。通过国家地震台网采集因滑坡激发产生的地震信号，反演得到滑坡区域的受力-时间函数，再经由时频分析划分滑坡期间的子事件，进而推导滑体的运动参数并还原滑坡过程。结果显示，由地震信号反演所求得的滑床坡度、滑坡方向以及滑体位移等数值与现场勘踏所得数据相符；同时，通过对滑坡子事件的分析，可分辨出因对岸河堤阻挡而产生的部分滑体反倾过程，从而还原较完整的滑坡过程。     

Volume expansion rates of seismic landslides and influencing factors: A case study of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake

When a big landside occurs, source material can change into loose deposit during its runout, causing the increase of the total landslide volume to some extent. Such changes can influence the quantification of seismic landslides. The objective of this paper was to study the volume expansion rate of landslides based on the data of 1417 co-seismic landslides triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan, China Mw 7.9 earthquake. We also analyzed the correlations between this rate and landslide geometric parameters(volume, height(H), length-width ratio(L/W), length-height ratio(L/H)), and environmental factors(peak ground acceleration(PGA), lithology, slope angle and aspect). The results show that the total source volume of the 1417 landslides is 1248 million m3, while the total volume of the deposit is 1501 million m3, which means the total volume expanding rate(Et) is 20.3% with the average volume expansion rate(Ea) 22.6%. The analysis indicates that volume expansion rate generally decreases with the increasing volume and height of landslides, while becoming larger with increasing L/H and L/W. Besides, the volume expansion rate is closely related to the landslide type and the volume scale of landslides. This study analyses volume change of co-seismic landslides deeply, permitting to help the correct quantification of the source volume and deposit volume of seismic landslide and a useful reference for the correct quantification of landslide volume.     

三峡库区大型-特大型层状岩质滑坡成因模式及地质特征分析

三峡库区大型-特大型滑坡发育，尤以层状岩质滑坡的危害性大。因库区各段地质条件差异使得滑坡成因模式各不相同，这影响了滑坡的运动形式和岩土体解体程度。在收集三峡库区51处典型的大型-特大型层状岩质滑坡调查资料基础上，根据堆积岩体结构和区段地质条件反推该段滑坡破坏成因模式，而不同成因模式下的滑坡坡体渗透性不同，分析已有滑坡对库水位变动存在的复活响应差异，据此得出以下结论:①在成因模式上，除顺层滑移型滑坡在库区中均有分布外，从库首至库尾随着岩层倾角的逐渐减缓，滑坡成因模式从崩塌型、反倾弯曲型逐渐过渡到平推式；②在坡体渗透性上，成因模式造成的岩体结构变化与坡体中的泥质含量共同作用，导致顺层滑移型滑坡前后缘渗透性存在较大差异；反倾型滑坡渗透性则整体变化较小；③在库水位变动影响下，不同坡体渗透性与滑面形态共同决定了滑坡的复活变形差异。      

兴仁“6·10”彭家洞高速滑坡运动特征与形成机理

2021年6月10日20时30分左右, 贵州省兴仁彭家洞发生高速滑坡, 滑坡体高速运动沿途铲刮坡面崩塌堆积体, 造成3人遇难, 18栋房屋损毁。通过对滑坡发生前后影像资料遥感解译、灾害发生现场详细的地质调查及室内综合分析等技术手段, 对彭家洞滑坡的特征进行了详细描述, 阐明了滑坡发生的运动特征与形成机理。研究表明: 斜坡地形"上陡-中缓-下陡"与岩土结构"上硬下软"是滑坡形成的内在因素, 人类工程活动、强降雨的饱水加载和下渗软化作用是滑坡形成的外在因素; 滑坡平面形态呈折线形, 根据运动特征和堆积结构将滑坡分为滑源区(Ⅰ)、铲刮-流通区(Ⅱ)、铲刮堆积区(Ⅲ)3个区; 滑坡是由危岩带形成、滑坡孕育及斜坡失稳3个阶段孕育形成的挤压-推移式高速滑坡。研究结果对贵州类似的斜坡地带及岩土结构区域开展防灾减灾工作具有较强的指导作用。