Beak measurements of octopus (Octopus variabilis) in Jiaozhou Bay and their use in size and biomass estimation

Cephalopods play key roles in global marine ecosystems as both predators and preys. Regressive estimation of original size and weight of cephalopod from beak measurements is a powerful tool of interrogating the feeding ecology of predators at higher trophic levels. In this study, regressive relationships among beak measurements and body length and weight were determined for an octopus species (Octopus variabilis), an important endemic cephalopod species in the northwest Pacific Ocean. A total of 193 individuals (63 males and 130 females) were collected at a monthly interval from Jiaozhou Bay, China. Regressive relationships among 6 beak measurements (upper hood length, UHL; upper crest length, UCL; lower hood length, LHL; lower crest length, LCL; and upper and lower beak weights) and mantle length (ML), total length (TL) and body weight (W) were determined. Results showed that the relationships between beak size and TL and beak size and ML were linearly regressive, while those between beak size and W fitted a power function model. LHL and UCL were the most useful measurements for estimating the size and biomass of O. variabilis. The relationships among beak measurements and body length (either ML or TL) were not significantly different between two sexes; while those among several beak measurements (UHL, LHL and LBW) and body weight (W) were sexually different. Since male individuals of this species have a slightly greater body weight distribution than female individuals, the body weight was not an appropriate measurement for estimating size and biomass, especially when the sex of individuals in the stomachs of predators was unknown. These relationships provided essential information for future use in size and biomass estimation of O. variabilis, as well as the estimation of predator/prey size ratios in the diet of top predators.     

Relationship between beak morphological variables and body size and mantle length of male and female Argentine shortfin squid (Illex argentinus)

Beak of cephalopod is an important hard tissue.Understanding the morphology of beak can yield critical information on the role of cephalopods in the ecosystem.The south patagonic stock of the Argentine shortfin squid,Illex argentinus,is not only one of the most important fishing targets,but also one of the most important species in the marine eco-system of the southwest Atlantic.A total of 430 samples of I.argentinus,including 229 females 103-346mm in mantle length(ML) and 201 males 140-298mm in ML,were collected from the area off the Exclusive Economic Zone of Argentinean waters by Chinese squid jigging vessels during February to May 2007.The morphology of their beaks was evaluated.The relationships between beak morphological variables and ML differed significantly among males and females.They could be best described by logarithmic functions for females and linear functions for males except for upper wing length(UWL) and lower rostrum length(LRL),which followed exponential functions in their relationships with ML.The results showed the sexual dimorphism in the relationship between ML and beak morphology for the south patagonic stock of I.argentinus.However,no significant difference was found between males and females in the relationships of beak morphological variables(except for UWL) versus body weight(BW),suggesting that the relationship between beak morphological variables and BW can be used for estimating the biomass consumed by their predators.     

Using statolith shape analysis to identify five commercial Loliginidae squid species in Chinese waters

Identification of squids in the family Loliginidae is a time-consuming exercise because of the highly overlapping distributions of species and their overall similarity(fin shape and size, sucker ring dentition, and color). Identifying squid based on statolith morphology is considered more accurate than identifying species based on beaks or gladius morphology. We report and compare the statolith shape offive commercially Loliginidae squid( Uroteuthis( Photololigo) duvaucelii, U. edulis, U. chinensis, Loliolus beka, L. japonica) to determine how well these structures discriminate species. Based on statolith morphology, variation in the lateral and dorsal domes enables an 84.8% success rate at classifying species. Environmental factors correlate with statolith shape, and for vertically migrating squid, statolith relative size decreases with increased depth of habitation. Statolith morphology can be used to effectively and accurately identify species of Loliginidae squid occurring in Chinese waters, and may prove valuable for identifying and managing squid resources.     

Identification of three common Loliginidae squid species in the South China Sea by analyzing hard tissues with geometric outline method

The hard tissues of squid can provide important information for species identification. In this study, we used statolith and beak to identify three squid species including Uroteuthis duvaucelii, Loliolus beka, and U. edulis in the South China Sea. Because of the highly overlapping habitat and similar body morphology of the three squid species, we explored four different ways to identify them, by using statolith, upper beak, lower beak and a combination of statolith and beak. An outline geometric morphometric method and stepwise discriminant analysis were used to evaluate the most suitable method for the identification. We found that the combination of statolith and beak had the highest cross validation rate that was 75.0%, 87.5% and 88.7% for U. duvaucelii, L. beka and U. edulis, respectively. Using two beaks had similar results and the lowest cross validation rate was 60.0%, 50.0%, and 73.7% for the upper beak, 46.9%, 58.5% and 75.3% for the lower beak of U. duvaucelii, L. beka and U. edulis, respectively. Analyzing with the statolith had moderate cross validation which was 72.2%, 80.0%, and 87.7% for U. duvaucelii, L. beka and U. edulis, respectively. From the results it is suggested when the entire body of a squid is available, a combination of statolith and beak should be used for the identification. When only one hard tissue is available, species identification can be subjected to large errors.     

东太平洋赤道公海茎柔鱼生物学特性

根据2013年4~6月在赤道公海探捕期间采集茎柔鱼样本,研究赤道公海茎柔鱼渔业生物学特性。结果表明,不同性别、不同月份,茎柔鱼胴长和体质量组成不同。雌、雄性样本的胴长范围分别为93~495 mm和94~406 mm,优势胴长组分别为260~340 mm和240~320 mm,分别占样本总数72.53%和70.26%;雌、雄性样本体质量范围分别为25~3 900 g和33~2170 g,优势体质量组分别为400~1 200 g和200~1 000 g,分别占样本总数82.71%和87.82%。雌、雄性茎柔鱼净体质量比例分别介于31.69%~80.51%和37.05%~81.35%之间,平均值分别为60.45%和62.73%。协方差分析表明,茎柔鱼胴长与体质量、胴长与净体质量的生长均存在性别间差异,胴长与体质量的生长都最适合用幂函数表示,而胴长与净体质量的生长,雌、雄性样本分别最适合用幂函数和指数函数表示。不同月份茎柔鱼性别比例构成不同,4月、5月和6月性别比例分别为1.87∶1、1.61∶1和1.17∶1,全部样本的性别比例为1.61∶1。不同月份茎柔鱼性腺成熟度的组成不同。不同性别、不同月份间茎柔鱼胃含物等级组成存在差异。     

Age, maturation, and population structure of the Humboldt squid Dosidicus gigas off the Peruvian Exclusive Economic Zones

Age, maturation and population structure of the Humboldt squid Dosidicus gigas were studied based on random sampling of the Chinese jigging fishery off the Peruvian Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) during 2008–2010. Estimated ages ranged from 144 to 633 days, confirming that the squid is a short-lived species with longevity no longer than 2 years. Occurrence of mature females and hatching in each month indicated that Humboldt squid spawned year-round. Back-calculated hatching dates for the samples were from January 22^nd, 2008 to April 22^nd, 2010 with a peak between January and March. Two size-based and two hatching date-based populations could be defined from mantle length (ML) at maturity and back-calculated hatching dates, respectively. Females matured at a larger size than males, and there was a significant difference in ML at maturity between the two hatching groups (P <0.05). The waters adjacent to 11°S off the Peruvian EEZ may be a potential spawning ground. This study shows the complexity of the population structure and large variability in key life history parameters in the Humboldt squid off the Peruvian EEZ, which should be considered in the assessment and management of this important resource.     

Using Different Standardized Methods for Species Identification: A Case Study Using Beaks from Three Ommastrephid Species

The cephalopod beak is a vital hard structure with a stable configuration and has been widely used for the identification of cephalopod species. This study was conducted to determine the best standardization method for identifying different species by measuring 12 morphological variables of the beaks of Illex argentinus, Ommastrephes bartramii, and Dosidicus gigas that were collected by Chinese jigging vessels. To remove the effects of size, these morphometric variables were standardized using three methods. The average ratios of the upper beak morphological variables and upper crest length of O. bartramii and D. gigas were found to be greater than those of I. argentinus. However, for lower beaks, only the average of LRL (lower rostrum length)/LCL (lower crest length), LRW (lower rostrum width)/LCL, and LLWL (lower lateral wall length)/LCL of O. bartramii and D. gigas were greater than those of I. argentinus. The ratios of beak morphological variables and crest length were found to be all significantly different among the three species (P < 0.001). Among the three standardization methods, the correct classification rate of stepwise discriminant analysis (SDA) was the highest using the ratios of beak morphological variables and crest length. Compared with hood length, the correct classification rate was slightly higher when using beak variables standardized by crest length using an allometric model. The correct classification rate of the lower beak was also found to be greater than that of the upper beak. This study indicates that the ratios of beak morphological variables to crest length could be used for interspecies and intraspecies identification. Meanwhile, the lower beak variables were found to be more effective than upper beak variables in classifying beaks found in the stomachs of predators.     

Impacts of El Ni?o on the somatic condition of Humboldt squid based on the beak morphology

The Humboldt squid Dosidicus gigas has a short life span,and environmental variability plays a significant role in regulating its population dynamics and distribution.An analysis of 1 096 samples of D.gigas collected by the Chinese commercial fishing vessels during 2013,2014,and 2016 off the Peruvian Exclusive Economic Zone,was conducted to evaluate the impacts of El Ni?o events on the somatic condition of D.gigas.This study indicates that the slopes of all beak variables in relation to mantle length(ML)for females were greater than those of males during 2013,2014,and 2016,and slopes of the upper crest length and the lower ro strum length significantly differed between females and males in 2013(P0.05).Variation in the slopes for beak variables among years was studied;no significant difference was observed(ANCOVA,P0.05).The Fulton's condition coefficients(K)of females and males in 2013 and 2014 were significantly greater than tho se in 2016(P0.01).01).The K values of females were greater than tho se of males in 201 3,2014,and 2016,and K values significantly differed between females and males in 201 3.In normal years,the chlorophyll a(Chl a)concentration showed an N-shaped variability from January to December.However,in the El Ni?o period,it tended to weaken the upwelling coupled with warm and low Chl a concentration waters.We suggest that the poor somatic condition of D.gigas during the El Ni?o year was resulted from the low Chl a concentration in the waters,and the abundance of D.gigas would decrease due to the unfavourable environment and the lack of prey items in the El Ni?o year.     

Fishery biology of jumbo flying squid Dosidicus gigas off Costa Rica Dome

The jumbo flying squid(Dosidicus gigas) population was surveyed with the help of Chinese squid jigging vessels off the Costa Rica Dome(4°–11°N, 90°–100°W) in 2009 and 2010. The daily catch of D. gigas in the two survey cruises ranged from 0 to 5.5 t and was mostly obtained from the areas bounded by 6°–9°N and 91°–94°W and by 6°30′–7°30′N and 96°–97°W. The sea surface temperature in the areas yielding the most catch ranged from 27.5 to 29℃. The sex ratio of the total catch was 3.75:1(female: male). The mantle length of the squid ranged from 211 to 355 mm(male) and from 204 to 429 mm(female) with an average of 297.9 and 306.7 mm, respectively. In the relationship of the mantle length(mm) and body weight(g) of the squid, there was no significant difference between sexes. The female and male were at a similar maturity, and most individuals are maturing or have matured with a few females being spent. The size(mantle length) and age at the first sexual maturity were 297 mm and 195 d in females, and less than 211 mm and 130 d in males, respectively. Most of the sampled stomachs(70.6%) had no food remains. The major preys of the squids were fish, cephalopods and crustaceans, with the most abundant Myctophum orientale and D. gigas. The preys in more than 65% of the non-empty sampled stomachs evidenced the cannibalism of D. gigas. The results improved current understanding of the fishery biology of D. gigas off the Costa Rica Dome, which may facilitate the assessment and management of relative fishery resources.     

智利外海茎柔鱼生物学特性的初步研究

根据2007年1月和5～6月我国鱿钓船在智利外海的调查数据,对茎柔鱼生物学特性进行初步分析。结果表明:该地区茎柔鱼胴长范围287～702 mm,优势胴长为380～430 mm,占64.2%;体重范围0.63～11.3 kg,优势体重为0.5～2.0 kg,占75.6%;调查海区渔获个体自西向东、自南往北呈现增大趋势;依据胴长组成推断调查海域可能存在3个群体。生长指数大于3,与秘鲁外海茎柔鱼相近;雌雄性比约为3:1,性腺成熟度以Ⅰ期为主,占92%;摄食等级0～2级为主,约占73%;当地时间00:00后摄食量增大,胃含物以鱿鱼和中上层小型鱼类为主。     

A comparison of fishery biology of jumbo flying squid, Dosidicus gigas outside three Exclusive Economic Zones in the Eastern Pacific Ocean

Although many studies on the fishery biology of jumbo flying squid, Dosidicus gigas, have been conducted in the coastal areas within Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of various countries due to its commercial and ecological importance, limited biological information is available from waters outside these EEZs. In this paper, we examined D. gigas fishery biology from waters outside Chilean, Peruvian and Costa Rican EEZs, based on the fishery data collected by Chinese jigging vessels during 2006 to 2010. The dominant mantle lengths of D. gigas were 350–450 mm, 250–400 mm and 250–350 mm outside Chilean, Peruvian and Costa Rican EEZs, respectively. Size structure analysis show that a medium-sized group existed mostly in the waters outside the Chilean and Peruvian EEZs, whereas a small-sized group occurred mainly in the waters outside the Costa Rican EEZ. The longevity of the squid outside the Costa Rican EEZ was less than 10 months, while most of those outside Chilean and Peruvian EEZs were about 1–1.5 years and very few large individuals were 1.5–2 years old. A higher percentage of mature individuals existed outside Costa Rican EEZ implying the region as a potential spawning ground, while lower proportions of mature squid outside the Peruvian and Chilean EEZs indicated that spawning may be occurring outside our study area. Spatial differences in sizes at maturity of the squid are thought to be result from different environmental factors especially different temperature and nutrition among the three areas. Stomach-content analysis showed that cannibalism was important in the diet of D. gigas. Stress generated by jigging may increase the incidence of cannibalism.     

Estimation of age,growth and maturation of purpleback flying squid, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis</Emphasis>, in Bashi Channel,central Pacific Ocean

The age, growth and maturation of Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis were determined with statolith data collected with a light purse seine from the Bashi Channel of central Pacific Ocean. The estimated longevity of the squid was no more than 6 months for females, and no more than 5 months for males. Growth in mantle length (ML) was best described by logistic models for both females and males, while growth in body weight (BW) was best fitted by power curves. The maximum absolute growth rate (AGR) and instantaneous growth rate (IGR) in ML or BW both occurred at 91–105 days for females and 76–90 days for males. Back calculated hatching dates were from October to January, with a peak in December, although the short duration of sampling date might have had an influence on the result. The lower percentage of mature females (37.2%) suggested that the study area during the sampling date was not a spawning ground for the species. Size and age at first maturity were 183 mm ML and 136 days for females, whereas they were 156 mm ML and 85 days for males.     

云斑尖塘鳢和线纹尖塘鳢自交与杂交子一代幼鱼生长性状及杂交优势分析

分析了由云斑尖塘鳢(Oxyeleotris marmoratus)、线纹尖塘鳢(Oxyeleotris lineolatus)、云斑尖塘鳢(♀)×线纹尖塘鳢(♂)的杂交子一代3个实验组鱼的生长性状以及杂交子代的杂交优势。结果表明,养殖35 d后,云斑尖塘鳢与线纹尖塘鳢的杂交子一代幼鱼较云斑尖塘鳢幼鱼、线纹尖塘鳢幼鱼生长速率大;杂交尖塘鳢体质量为(1.6496±0.0501)g,比云斑尖塘鳢体质量(0.9353±0.1426)g和线纹尖塘鳢体质量(0.6690±0.0687)g差异显著(p<0.05);杂交尖塘鳢的全长为(53.63±0.83)mm,比云斑尖塘鳢全长(42.99±2.21)mm差异显著(p<0.05);从生长速率上看,杂交尖塘鳢幼鱼的杂种优势十分明显,平均为105.65%,超过云斑尖塘鳢亲本的超亲杂种优势为76.37%,超过线纹尖塘鳢亲本的超亲杂种优势为146.58%。在相同的人工养殖环境下,杂交使云斑尖塘鳢和线纹尖塘鳢幼鱼的生长得到了改良。     

Three-stage tectonic subsidence and its implications for the evolution of conjugate margins of the southwest subbasin,South China Sea

To reveal the tectonic characteristics of the continental margins in the southwest subbasin(SWB) of the South China Sea,a long high-resolution seismic profile was studied using empty basin subsidence.We find that tectonic subsidence features on both margins are uniformly divided into three stages:(1) slow subsidence from Tg to 18.5 Ma(synrift stage);(2) extremely slow subsidence/uplift from18.5 to 16 Ma(spreading stage);and(3) accelerated subsidence from 16 to 0 Ma(post-spreading stage).This feature differs from the classic tectonic subsidence pattern of rifted basins,which exhibits fast subsidence during synrift stage and slow subsidence during the post-rift stage.The tectonic uplift occurred during the spreading stage and the magnitude increased from the continent to the ocean,which is likely related to mantle flow during seafloor spreading.We propose that lower crustal flow played a significant role in the tectonic evolution of the continental margins of the SWB.The lower crust of the SWB margins was warmer and therefore weaker,and more prone to flow beneath the faulting center,which compensated for the upper crustal thinning caused by brittle faulting during the synrift period and thus reduced the tectonic subsidence rate.During the spreading stage,faulting attenuated rapidly,and a necking zone appeared at the continentocean transition formed by lithospheric extension.With upwelling asthenosphere,small-scale secondary mantle convection occurred under the necking zone,which raised the continental margin isotherms and increased the buoyancy.Simultaneously,secondary mantle convection lifted the overriding crust,thus the overall subsidence rate decreased sharply or even reversed to uplift.After seafloor spreading,the effect of mantle convection faded away,and sediment loading drove the lower crust to flow landward.Thermal relaxation,lower crust flow,and vanish of secondary mantle convection together led to rapid subsidence in this stage.     

智利外海茎柔鱼耳石生长特性的性别差异研究

根据2007年1~6月和2008年1~5月我国鱿钓船在智利外海调查期间采集的茎柔鱼耳石样本,测量了503枚耳石外部形态参数(雌性348枚,雄性155枚),结合耳石日轮,对耳石生长特性的性别差异进行了研究.结果表明,耳石总长(TSL)、耳石半径(SR)、吻侧区长(RLL)、翼长(WL)及最大宽度(MW)可作为茎柔鱼耳石形态的表征参数.雌雄个体间耳石的生长在5个形态参数上均存在显著性差异,雌性个体 TSL 与日龄间关系最适为指数函数, SR 和 RLL 为幂函数, MW 和 WL 则为线性函数;雄性个体的 TSL、SR 和 RLL 与日龄间的关系最适为幂函数, MW 和 WL 为线性函数.雌性个体 TSL、SR、MW、RLL、WL 的相对生长率和SR、RLL 绝对生长率均随着日龄的增加而先增加后减小, TSL、MW 绝对生长率随着日龄的增加而增加,WL绝对生长率则随着日龄增加而呈现波动趋势;雄性个体 TSL、SR 相对生长率和 MW、RLL、WL 绝对生长率随着日龄增加先增加后减小,而 MW、RLL 和 WL 相对生长率和 TSL、SR 绝对生长率则随日龄增加呈现波动趋势.研究认为,茎柔鱼耳石生长存在性别差异,通常雌性生长较雄性快     

Introduction,spat-rearing and experimental culture of bay scallop,Argopecten irradians lamarck

Bay scallops were introduced from the east coast of the U.S. into China to shorten the economic turn-over from 2 to 1 year. Parent scallops were carried to Qingdao on Dec. 20, 1982 and stocked in indoor tanks at controlled temperature and fed with a mixture ofPhaeodictylum tricornutum, Pyramimonas sp. andChlorella sp. They spawned on Jan. 26 of the next year. The larvae were reared at a temperature of 18–21°C and fed withIsochrysis galbana, Pyramimonas sp. andChorella sp. In 4 weeks’ growing, the spats averaged 827 μm. They attained a height of 6.9 mm on May 9. In the middle of May, the seed scallops were transferred to Luoyuan Bay in Fujian Province, and Jiaozhou Bay, as well as the area off Taiping Jiao Cape, Qingdao, Shandong Province for experimental culture in plastic netcages suspended on a single line raft. Bay scallops cultured in Luoyuan Bay grew to an averaged shell height of 10.4 mm. In Jiaozhou Bay and the Taiping Jiao Cape culture area, they grew to 50 mm in average shell height (marketable size) and 26 g in average weight by late September; and attained 59 mm in average shell height (R. 39–75 mm) and 46 g in average weight in late December. The ovary and testis could be distinguished by color in August. In early September, eggs and sperms were collected for our laboratory where the second generation of seed scallops was successfully reared to suitable size for growing outdoor and breeding. This species can be harvested within a year after fertilization of the eggs, so we consider it suitable for culture in the Yellow Sea and East China Sea. This is the first reported successful introduction of Atlantic mollusks to the China Seas. This paper was published in Chinese inOceanologia et Limnologia Sinica 17 (5): 367–374, 1986.     

A NEW POMFRET SPECIES, PAMPUS MINOR SP. NOV.(STROMATEIDAE) FROM CHINESE WATERS

Pmpusndnorliuetlisp.nov.(Fig.1)StroInateOdeampas,Cheng,l962,Fish.SouthChinaSea,761-762,fig.6l6(ZhaPO,GuanghallLangzhou,Shanwi,Nanao,GUangdongProvince).Inagnosis:Standrilengthofadultshort,notmorethanl5omm.Thehalbenl-shaPedspinesofdOhalandanalfinsareconspicuousinbOthjuvenileandadultfishandnoteInbeddedinskin.Eyeslmp,eyediameter2.8-3.5inheadlength.PamPhenoidofskullroundcurve-shaped,orbitalfossalarge,sedri-circularshaPed-Otoliththickandsolid,itsanteriornotchshallow-NuInberofprecaudaland…     

LENGTH FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF PLEURAGRAMMA ANTARCTICUM,ELECTRONA ANTARCTICA,PROTOMYCTOPHUM BOLINI

British Antarctic Survey(BAS)data collected near the Antarctic Peninsula area were used in this1988/1989 study on the length frequency of three Antarctic fish species(Pleuragramma antarcticum,Electrona antarctica and Protomyctophum bolini)showing that the standard length(SL)of P.Antarcticumranged from 26.0 mm to 161.0 mm,that the 26.0 mm to 54.0 mm SL juveniles could be considered tobe the age group 1 fish,and that the SL of E.antarctica ranged from 39.4 mm to 89.7 mm for themales and 48.0 mm to 118.0 mm for the females,which may contain at least 6 age groups.This ismore than previously thought.P.Bolini had 29.2 mm to 60.2 mm SL and complicated age com-position.     

The study on fishing ground of neon flying squid, Ommastrephes bartrami, and ocean environment based on remote sensing data in the Northwest Pacific Ocean

The relationships between the neon flying squid, Ommastrephes bartrami, and the relative ocean environmental factors are analyzed. The environmental factors collected are sea surface temperature (SST), chlorophyll concentration (Chl-a) and sea surface height (SSH) from NASA, as well as the yields of neon flying squid in the North Pacific Ocean. The results show that the favorable temperature for neon flying squid living is 10℃-22℃ and the favorite temperature is between 15℃-17℃. The Chl-a concentration is 0.1-0.6 mg/m3. When Chl-a concentration changes to 0.12-0.14 mg/m3, the probability of forming fishing ground becomes very high. In most fishing grounds,the SSH is higher than the mean SSH. The generalized additive model (GAM) was applied to analyze the correlations between neon flying squid and ocean environmental factors. Every year, squids migrate northward from June to August and return southward during October-November, and the characteristics of the both migrations are very different. When squids migrate to the north, most relationships between the yields and SST are positive. The relationships are negative when squids move to southward. The relationships between the yields and Chl-a concentrations are negative from June to October, and insignificant in November. There is no obvious correlation between the catches of squid and longitude, but good with latitude.     

Length frequency analysis ofPleuragramma antarcticum,Electrona antarctica,Protomyctophum bolini

British Antarctic Survey (BAS) data collected near the Antarctic Peninsula area were used in this 1988/1989 study on the length frequency of three Antarctic fish species (Pleuragramma antarcticum, Electrona antarctica and Protomyctophum bolini) showing that the standard length (SL) ofP. Antarcticum ranged from 26.0 mm to 161.0 mm, that the 26.0 mm to 54.0 mm SL juveniles could be considered to be the age group 1 fish, and that the SL ofE. antarctica ranged from 39.4 mm to 89.7 mm for the males and 48.0 mm to 118.0 mm for the females, which may contain at least 6 age groups. This is more than previously thought.P. Bolini had 29.2 mm to 60.2 mm SL and complicated age composition.