地面3维激光扫描仪测量精度试验与分析

地面3维激光扫描仪是一种可进行全自动高精度立体扫描的先进仪器。其特点是可大面积高分辨率地快速获取被测对象表面的3维坐标数据,且所获取的数据具有实时、动态、高密度、高精度等优点。因而,激光扫描测量仪器的精度对工程应用的影响以及对3维点云模型的建立和精度影响至关重要。文章针对瑞格公司所生产的VZ400扫描仪在测量时,距离、入射角度、目标颜色几个因素对精度产生的影响进行研究。利用平面拟合的方法分析精度,得出了随着距离的增加,入射角的增大,会导致地面3维激光扫描仪测量精度降低的定性分析结论．     

球形标靶的固定式扫描大点云自动定向方法

根据目前地面激光扫描数据获取速度快、数据量大、测量距离远、专用特殊材料制作的标靶识别距离近、点云定向数据处理相对滞后、自动化程度低、不能适应远距离地形测量的现状,提出了从大点云中(每站1亿点以上)自动探测远距离标靶的点云定向方法。该方法首先根据标靶控制点的工程测量坐标信息,搜索到标靶所在点云环,然后对各点云环进行扇形分区,快速探测标靶,获取标靶中心扫描坐标,最后平差计算扫描仪位置参数和姿态参数,实现点云坐标到工程测量坐标的转换。该方法在普通配置的计算机上得到实现,并成功用于远距离山区地形测量,其中定向标靶半径0.162m,标靶到扫描站距离在180~700m之间。     

A comparison of dense matching algorithms for scaled surface reconstruction using stereo camera rigs

Photogrammetric methods for dense 3D surface reconstruction are increasingly available to both professional and amateur users who have requirements that span a wide variety of applications. One of the key concerns in choosing an appropriate method is to understand the achievable accuracy and how choices made within the workflow can alter that outcome. In this paper we consider accuracy in two components: the ability to generate a correctly scaled 3D model; and the ability to automatically deliver a high quality data set that provides good agreement to a reference surface. The determination of scale information is particularly important, since a network of images usually only provides angle measurements and thus leads to unscaled geometry. A solution is the introduction of known distances in object space, such as base lines between camera stations or distances between control points. In order to avoid using known object distances, the method presented in this paper exploits a calibrated stereo camera utilizing the calibrated base line information from the camera pair as an observational based geometric constraint. The method provides distance information throughout the object volume by orbiting the object.In order to test the performance of this approach, four topical surface matching methods have been investigated to determine their ability to produce accurate, dense point clouds. The methods include two versions of Semi-Global Matching as well as MicMac and Patch-based Multi-View Stereo (PMVS). These methods are implemented on a set of stereo images captured from four carefully selected objects by using (1) an off-the-shelf low cost 3D camera and (2) a pair of Nikon D700 DSLR cameras rigidly mounted in close proximity to each other. Inter-comparisons demonstrate the subtle differences between each of these permutations. The point clouds are also compared to a dataset obtained with a Nikon MMD laser scanner. Finally, the established process of achieving accurate point clouds from images and known object space distances are compared with the presented strategies.Results from the matching demonstrate that if a good imaging network is provided, using a stereo camera and bundle adjustment with geometric constraints can effectively resolve the scale. Among the strategies for dense 3D reconstruction, using the presented method for solving the scale problem and PMVS on the images captured with two DSLR cameras resulted in a dense point cloud as accurate as the Nikon laser scanner dataset.     

基于特征点法向量的点云配准算法

在传统的迭代最近点算法（ICP）中，需要两片点云具有良好的初始位置，否则在配准时容易陷入局部最优。针对该问题，本文提出了一种基于特征点提取与配对的粗配准方法，以调整两片点云重叠部分的初始位置。首先，利用SIFT算法提取两片点云公共部分的特征点；其次，根据特征点法向量之间的欧氏距离将两片点云的特征点两两配对；然后，利用法向量的夹角对特征点对进行提纯；最后，通过单位四元数法，求解出旋转及平移矩阵，完成粗配准。试验表明，本文基于特征点法向量的粗配准方法可为精配准提供良好的初始位置，在一定程度上避免配准时陷入局部最优的现象。     

一种三维激光扫描点云拟合的抗差加权整体最小二乘法

针对三维激光扫描中点云不等精度且易受粗差影响的问题,提出了一种基于入射角定权的抗差加权总体最小二乘的拟合方法。该方法在采用入射角定权的基础上,进行基于标准化残差和中位数的抗差加权整体最小二乘估计,获得待定参数估值,并通过Gauss-Newton迭代算法,推导了模型的迭代计算方法。以平面拟合和球面拟合为例,分别通过仿真数据和实测数据对算法进行验证,结果表明,对于含有粗差的点云,新方法可以获得更为理想的参数估值,其性能优于抗差整体最小二乘和加权整体最小二乘,可以更好地进行三维激光扫描的点云拟合。     

徕卡RTC360三维激光扫描仪在建筑立面改造中的应用

徕卡RTC360极速三维激光扫描仪作为徕卡一款新型设备，不仅操作简单、扫描速度快，可在尽可能短的时间内完成海量丰富点云和高清影像的采集，数据全面，细节丰富，极大地提高了外业的工作效率；而且非常智能。本文采用VIS视觉追踪技术，通过对扫描仪位置进行跟踪定位，在采集过程中进行点云的实时拼接，无需标靶、公共点和人工干预；现场实时查看点云预拼接，极大减少了内业工作量；后期搭配Cyclone Register360智能拼接软件，点云无需人工干预，可实现自动智能拼接处理，以及外业采集及内业数据处理的简单高效。     

Accurate 3D comparison of complex topography with terrestrial laser scanner: Application to the Rangitikei canyon (N-Z)

Surveying techniques such as terrestrial laser scanner have recently been used to measure surface changes via 3D point cloud (PC) comparison. Two types of approaches have been pursued: 3D tracking of homologous parts of the surface to compute a displacement field, and distance calculation between two point clouds when homologous parts cannot be defined. This study deals with the second approach, typical of natural surfaces altered by erosion, sedimentation or vegetation between surveys. Current comparison methods are based on a closest point distance or require at least one of the PC to be meshed with severe limitations when surfaces present roughness elements at all scales. To solve these issues, we introduce a new algorithm performing a direct comparison of point clouds in 3D. The method has two steps: (1) surface normal estimation and orientation in 3D at a scale consistent with the local surface roughness; (2) measurement of the mean surface change along the normal direction with explicit calculation of a local confidence interval. Comparison with existing methods demonstrates the higher accuracy of our approach, as well as an easier workflow due to the absence of surface meshing or Digital Elevation Model (DEM) generation. Application of the method in a rapidly eroding, meandering bedrock river (Rangitikei River canyon) illustrates its ability to handle 3D differences in complex situations (flat and vertical surfaces on the same scene), to reduce uncertainty related to point cloud roughness by local averaging and to generate 3D maps of uncertainty levels. We also demonstrate that for high precision survey scanners, the total error budget on change detection is dominated by the point clouds registration error and the surface roughness. Combined with mm-range local georeferencing of the point clouds, levels of detection down to 6 mm (defined at 95% confidence) can be routinely attained in situ over ranges of 50 m. We provide evidence for the self-affine behaviour of different surfaces. We show how this impacts the calculation of normal vectors and demonstrate the scaling behaviour of the level of change detection. The algorithm has been implemented in a freely available open source software package. It operates in complex 3D cases and can also be used as a simpler and more robust alternative to DEM differencing for the 2D cases.     

An improved segmentation approach for planar surfaces from unstructured 3D point clouds

The extraction of object features from massive unstructured point clouds with different local densities, especially in the presence of random noisy points, is not a trivial task even if that feature is a planar surface. Segmentation is the most important step in the feature extraction process. In practice, most segmentation approaches use geometrical information to segment the 3D point cloud. The features generally include the position of each point (X, Y and Z), locally estimated surface normals and residuals of best fitting surfaces; however, these features could be affected by noisy points and in consequence directly affect the segmentation results. Therefore, massive unstructured and noisy point clouds also lead to bad segmentation (over-segmentation, under-segmentation or no segmentation). While the RANSAC (random sample consensus) algorithm is effective in the presence of noise and outliers, it has two significant disadvantages, namely, its efficiency and the fact that the plane detected by RANSAC may not necessarily belong to the same object surface; that is, spurious surfaces may appear, especially in the case of parallel-gradual planar surfaces such as stairs. The innovative idea proposed in this paper is a modification for the RANSAC algorithm called Seq-NV-RANSAC. This algorithm checks the normal vector (NV) between the existing point clouds and the hypothesised RANSAC plane, which is created by three random points, under an intuitive threshold value. After extracting the first plane, this process is repeated sequentially (Seq) and automatically, until no planar surfaces can be extracted from the remaining points under the existing threshold value. This prevents the extraction of spurious surfaces, brings an improvement in quality to the computed attributes and increases the degree of automation of surface extraction. Thus the best fit is achieved for the real existing surfaces.     

利用激光扫描和数码相机进行古建筑三维重建研究

本文提出了一种利用激光扫描仪和数码相机对古建筑物进行快速三维重建的方案。对于待扫描的建筑物,获取从不同角度扫描的激光点云,并用手持数码相机拍摄具有一定重叠度的序列图像。首先,对相邻扫描站的激光点云自动拼接,生成统一的点云模型。通过在点云和图像上分别提取特征直线,利用共面条件,解算各张照片相对于激光扫描坐标系的方位元素。利用已配准的两种传感器数据,提取建筑物框架,并映射纹理,生成三维模型。文章最后给出对武汉大学老图书馆三维重建的实验结果。     

一种基于点云法向量的基准特征提取与倾斜分析方法

针对目前将三维激光扫描技术应用于变形监测领域存在基准特征难以提取、点云数据分析缺乏适用的方法等问题，本文提出了一种基于点云法向量的基准特征提取与形变分析方法。首先利用局部平面拟合方法获得点云的法向量，并沿点云法矢方向探测基准点；然后利用三次B样条曲线对探测的正确基准点进行拟合；最后根据拟合曲线计算基准高程和对径点倾斜角分析基准特征形变信息。对某化工厂的罐体点云数据进行基准特征提取结果表明，该方法可以快速、全面地获取监测对象的整体信息，且能够正确分析监测对象的基准形变。     

移动车载激光点云的道路标线自动识别与提取

对移动车载激光测量LandMark系统获取的路面激光点云数据进行研究,结合激光点云的回波反射率、扫描角,以及量测距离等特征信息与道路标线的属性信息,提出了一种基于车载激光点云的道路标线自动识别与提取算法。从点云中提取道路标线,采用最小二乘线性最优拟合算法对提取的标线点云进行拟合,生成道路标线的CAD轮廓线,实现道路标线的自动化识别。以移动车载LandMark系统的Sick激光扫描仪获取的路面激光点云为例进行实验,实验结果表明该方法的可行性和有效性。     

车载激光点云的道路标线提取及语义关联

自动驾驶技术已成为未来智能交通的发展方向之一,高精度地图为L3级及以上自动驾驶实现高精度定位和路径规划提供先验信息,是自动驾驶车辆传感器在遮挡或观测距离受限情况下的重要补充。道路标线的位置和语义信息,比如实线和虚线的绝对位置是高精度地图的基本组成部分。本文从车载激光点云中提取扫描线,根据道路边缘位置几何形态的突变从扫描线中提取道路路面,在此基础上首先利用反距离加权插值的方法把路面点云图像以一定的分辨率转换为栅格图像,其次利用基于积分图的自适应阈值分割方法把栅格图像转化为二值图像,然后利用欧氏聚类的方法从二值图像中提取标线点云,并利用特征属性筛选的方法对提取的标线点云进行语义识别,最后建立交通标线和交通规则之间的语义关联。     

基于激光扫描技术的建筑物三维重建

三维激光扫描技术作为一种新型高精度的全自动立体扫描技术,区别于传统的单点式测量,它能够快速获取被测物体表面大量的三维空间坐标。同时获得的点云数据不仅能够直观地表现出物体属性,还能构造出目标物的三维模型进行规划分析,大大推动了数字城市的建设进程。而本文详细介绍了三维激光扫描技术,并结合实际案例来阐述利用地面激光扫描仪对青岛市某高层建筑进行外业测量以及点云数据处理,最终利用Realworks和Sketchup软件对点云数据进行三维重建及展示。     

光斑影响下激光点云的不确定性评价

利用光斑的特性确定激光点位在光斑中的不确定性,将误差熵引入到激光点位不确定性的评价中。根据激光反射特性,确定了激光点位不确定性的概率密度函数,利用信息熵的定义推导了激光点位的信息熵,同时,利用信息熵与误差熵的关系进行了激光点位误差熵的推导,根据误差熵关系式确定了误差熵与光斑面积的线性关系。根据点云光斑实际面积,得到了点云误差熵及每个激光点位的平均误差熵。利用入射角与误差熵之间的关系,分析了入射角对激光点位不确定性的影响程度,确定了扫描的最佳入射角范围。通过设置不同扫描间隔得到的点云数据,验证了利用误差熵对点云不确定性进行评价的可行性。     

Eigen-feature analysis of weighted covariance matrices for LiDAR point cloud classification

The features used in the separation of different objects are important for successful point cloud classification. Eigen-features from a covariance matrix of a point set with the sample mean are commonly used geometric features that can describe the local geometric characteristics of a point cloud and indicate whether the local geometry is linear, planar, or spherical. However, eigen-features calculated by the principal component analysis of a covariance matrix are sensitive to LiDAR data with inherent noise and incomplete shapes because of the non-robust statistical analysis. To obtain reliable eigen-features from LiDAR data and to improve classification accuracy, we introduce a method of analyzing local geometric characteristics of a point cloud by using a weighted covariance matrix with a geometric median. Each point is assigned a weight to represent its spatial contribution in the weighted principal component analysis and to estimate the geometric median which can be regarded as a localized center of a shape. In the experiments, qualitative and quantitative analyses on airborne LiDAR data and simulated point clouds show a clear improvement of the proposed method compared with the standard eigen-features. The classification accuracy is improved by 1.6–4.5% using a supervised classifier.     

空地技术结合地形图测图方法研究

车载移动测量系统可以快速、高精度地对测区进行三维激光扫描,但是因地物遮挡、视角限制,使得点云数据存在缺失;无人机航测具有高效率、高灵活性和低成本等优势,但是稳定性差,受天气影像严重,易导致影像不清晰或精度低。无人机航测技术可以弥补车载移动测量技术的采集盲区,后者可以发挥高精度的优点,二者技术联合应用,将极大提高测绘精度及生产效率。本文以某小区为例,进行了相关方法实验,对建筑物顶部或植被茂密处等扫描盲区,采用无人机航测补测,通过高精度激光点云对航摄影像进行纠正匹配,综合利用激光点云与航摄影像进行大比例尺测图。     

三维激光扫描数据获取高分辨率DTM试验研究

三维激光扫描技术能够提供实体表面点云数据,可用于获取高精度高分辨率数字地形模型。本文以重庆万州区付家岩滑坡体为例探讨了采用三维激光扫描监测技术获取数字地形模型的方法,着重讨论了相关点云数据处理流程和关键技术问题。通过结合差分GPS技术进行激光数据的相对定位和绝对定位、去噪、拼接等方法,获得了该区域地表高精度地形数据,并生成了相应的数字高程模型。试验结果初步说明该技术可用于获取小尺度高精度高分辨率数字地形模型,具有一定的应用前景。     

矿区地表彩色点云的自动分类

以矿区的彩色三维激光点云数据为研究对象，提出了矿区点云快速自动分类及目标提取的方法。首先根据彩色点云的RGB值计算HSV空间中的H值，根据各地物间H值的差异，分别对地面点与非地面点根据地物颜色先验值进行点的提取。然后对提取的点进行聚类计算，利用各类地物点云在空间分布上的显著差异，采用分层截面投影，由投影点最小包围盒的长宽比及面积比对矿区地物点云进行自动分类与提取。最后以Riegl VZ-1000扫描仪采集的某矿区地表点云数据为试验对象，验证本文算法的可行性和实用性。     

塔形构筑物倾斜变形监测新方法

随着各地高层构筑物数量的不断增加，构筑物变形产生的安全隐患也不断受到重视。本文针对传统观测方法的局限性和低效性，提出了基于激光散乱点云数据的塔形构筑物倾斜变形监测新方法，采用两台地面激光扫描仪分别扫描构筑物外表面的散乱点云数据，建立塔形构筑物的基础表面模型，生成沿轴线的塔体中心点数据，筛选可靠性最优的线性排列点，从而得出塔形构筑物在空间上高精度的偏移量和倾斜率。最终编程实现了数据获取到成果输出的一键式计算。结果表明，基于点云的塔形构筑物观测结果与传统方法观测结果的角度误差分别为0.005°和0.001°，倾斜量误差分别为0.000 05和0.000 1 m。本文方法可以快速获得构筑物整体和局部的偏移量变化特征，为塔形构筑物的施工、维修和重建提供了基础模型数据。     

3维激光扫描树干提取与建模研究

由于树木生长的不规则性,造成对其各部分组件的测定与建模具有复杂性与挑战性。本文利用3维激光扫描仪获得树木的点云数据,对树干进行分离提取与3维建模研究。通过对四棵树的树干点云进行分离与提取、3维建模并计算其体积,得出由于遮挡等问题,全部提取树干点云难以实现。在提取主要树干点云的基础上,采用最大距离封装树干表面效果较好,封装表面采用网格修补可建立树干3维立体模型,实现体积计算。