Scrutinising MODIS and GIMMS Vegetation Indices for Extracting Growth Rhythm of Natural Vegetation in India

Satellite derived vegetation vigour has been successfully used for various environmental modeling since 1972. However, extraction of reliable annual growth information about natural vegetation (i.e., phenology) has been of recent interest due to their important role in many global models and free availability of time-series satellite data. In this study, usability of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro-radiometer (MODIS) and Global Inventory Modelling and Mapping Studies (GIMMS) based products in extracting phenology information about evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist deciduous and dry deciduous vegetation in India was explored. The MODIS NDVI and EVI time-series data (MOD13C1: 5.6 km spatial resolution with 16 day temporal resolution—2001 to 2010) and GIMMS NDVI time-series data(8 km spatial resolution with 15 day temporal resolution—2000 to 2006) were used. These three differently derived vegetation indices were analysed to extract and understand the vegetative growth rhythm over different regions of India. Algorithm was developed to derive onset of greenness and end of senescence automatically. The comparative analysis about differences in the results from these products was carried out. Due to dominant noise in the values of NDVI from GIMMS and MODIS during monsoon period the phenology rhythm were wrongly depicted, especially for evergreen and semi-evergreen vegetation in India. Hence, care is needed before using these data sets for understanding vegetative dynamics, biomass cestimation and carbon studies. MODIS EVI based results were truthful and comparable to ground reality. The study reveals spatio-temporal patterns of phenology, rate of greening, rate of senescence, and differences in results from these three products.     

Leaf area index retrieval using gap fractions obtained from high resolution satellite data: Comparisons of approaches,scales and atmospheric effects

This study is aimed at demonstrating the feasibility of the large scale LAI inversion algorithms using red and near infrared reflectance obtained from high resolution satellite imagery. Radiances in digital counts were obtained in 10 m resolution acquired on cloud free day of August 23, 2007, by the SPOT 5 high resolution geometric (HRG) instrument on mostly temperate hardwood forest located in the Great Lakes – St. Lawrence forest in Southern Quebec. Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), scaled difference vegetation index (SDVI) and modified soil-adjusted vegetation index (MSAVI) were applied to calculate gap fractions. LAI was inverted from the gap fraction using the common Beer–Lambert's law of light extinction under forest canopy. The robustness of the algorithm was evaluated using the ground-based LAI measurements and by applying the methods for the independently simulated reflectance data using PROSPECT + SAIL coupled radiative transfer models. Furthermore, the high resolution LAI was compared with MODIS LAI product. The effects of atmospheric corrections and scales were investigated for all of the LAI retrieval methods. NDVI was found to be not suitable index for large scale LAI inversion due to the sensitivity to scale and atmospheric effects. SDVI was virtually scale and atmospheric correction invariant. MSAVI was also scale invariant. Considering all sensitivity analysis, MSAVI performed best followed by SDVI for robust LAI inversion from high resolution imagery.     

Fusing MODIS with Landsat 8 data to downscale weekly normalized difference vegetation index estimates for central Great Basin rangelands,USA

Data fused from distinct but complementary satellite sensors mitigate tradeoffs that researchers make when selecting between spatial and temporal resolutions of remotely sensed data. We integrated data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor aboard the Terra satellite and the Operational Land Imager sensor aboard the Landsat 8 satellite into four regression-tree models and applied those data to a mapping application. This application produced downscaled maps that utilize the 30-m spatial resolution of Landsat in conjunction with daily acquisitions of MODIS normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) that are composited and temporally smoothed. We produced four weekly, atmospherically corrected, and nearly cloud-free, downscaled 30-m synthetic MODIS NDVI predictions (maps) built from these models. Model results were strong with R² values ranging from 0.74 to 0.85. The correlation coefficients (r ≥ 0.89) were strong for all predictions when compared to corresponding original MODIS NDVI data. Downscaled products incorporated into independently developed sagebrush ecosystem models yielded mixed results. The visual quality of the downscaled 30-m synthetic MODIS NDVI predictions were remarkable when compared to the original 250-m MODIS NDVI. These 30-m maps improve knowledge of dynamic rangeland seasonal processes in the central Great Basin, United States, and provide land managers improved resource maps.     

GF-2支持下的干旱区稀疏植被区植被覆盖度估算

现有像元二分模型MODIS植被覆盖度模型因其形式简单、适用性较强的特点被广泛应用于区域植被覆盖度（FVC）的估算。然而，研究表明在沙漠和低植被覆盖的西部干旱区，从250 m的影像上很难精准地获取NDVI_veg（全植被覆盖植被指数）和NDVI_soil（全裸土区植被指数）参数。利用常用的直方图累计法获取模型所需参数NDVI_veg和NDVI_soil，估算结果存在普遍高估现象。为此，本文首先引入同期获取的GF-2号卫星数据，从GF-2号影像上提取植被覆盖像元；然后，利用Pixel Aggregate方法重采样至250 m分辨率，获取250 m空间分辨率下纯植被和纯裸土像元；最后，将纯植被和纯裸土像元各自空间位置相对应的MODIS NDVI数据最大值作为模型所需NDVI_veg和NDVI_soil参数，实现研究区内植被覆盖度的估算。试验通过与线性回归法、多项式回归法和直方图累计像元二分模型法估算结果进行精度对比，结果表明：利用GF-2影像辅助的像元二分模型，精准地获取了低植被覆盖区NDVI_veg和NDVI_soil模型参数，提高了干旱区植被覆盖度的估算精度，并有效地抑制了受稀疏植被影响NDVI在干旱区普遍偏高问题导致的FVC高估的现象。     

锡林浩特草原区域MODIS LAI产品真实性检验与误差分析

本文研究了LAI产品真实性检验的指标和方法,建立了LAI产品真实性检验的流程,将遥感产品真实性检验误差分解为模型误差、数据定量化差异和尺度效应3个方面。以内蒙古锡林浩特草原为研究区,结合实测数据和Landsat TM数据建立NDVI-LAI模型,得到LAI验证参考"真值",据此"真值"按照本文的流程对MODIS LAI产品进行验证,分析了研究区MODIS LAI产品真实性检验的误差来源。研究表明,该研究区的MODIS LAI(MOD15A2)产品相对高估约25%。各个误差因素中,LAI遥感模型差异对于结果影响最大,MODIS LAI模型高估了该区域草地LAI(高估约44.2%);数据定量差异的影响也比较大,MODIS地表反射率数据与Landsat TM地表反射率数据的差异造成了约16.2%的低估;尺度效应的影响较小,造成约3.1%的低估,其中NDVI-LAI模型的尺度效应带来2.4%的低估,NDVI数据的尺度效应造成约0.7%的低估。     

高分四号卫星在干旱遥感监测中的应用

高分四号(GF-4)是国家高分辨率对地观测系统重大专项天基系统中的一颗地球同步卫星,为探索GF-4号卫星在大面积干旱监测中的应用,本文对该卫星在快速监测大面积干旱方面的应用能力进行了初步探讨。以2016年内蒙古自治区巴林左旗和巴林右旗地区严重旱灾为例,利用NDVI差值对该区域的干旱情况进行了监测,并与MODIS NDVI产品进行对比分析,得到了研究区内2016年干旱分布情况,结果表明其总体趋势与MODIS NDVI产品一致,且细节信息更加丰富。本文主要是GF-4卫星数据结合GF-1卫星数据对内蒙部分干旱区域进行监测和分析,体现了国产高分辨率卫星数据,尤其是GF-4卫星数据,对提高中国突发灾害的应对能力具有重要意义。     

Retrieval of remotely sensed LAI using Landsat ETM+ data and ground measurements of solar radiation and vegetation structure: Implication of leaf inclination angle

A time series of leaf area index (LAI) of a managed birch forest in Germany (near Dresden) has been developed based on 16-day normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data from the Landsat ETM+ sensor at 30 m resolution. The Landsat ETM+ LAI was retrieved using a modified physical radiative transfer (RTM) model which establishes a relationship between LAI, fractional vegetation cover (fC), and given patterns of surface reflectance, view-illumination conditions and optical properties of vegetation. In situ measurements of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and vegetation structure parameters using hemispherical photography (HSP) served for calibration of model parameters, while data from litter collection at the study site provided the ground-based estimates of LAI for validation of modelling results. Influence of view-illumination conditions on optical properties of canopy was simulated by a view angle geometry model incorporating the solar zenith angle and the sensor viewing angle. Effects of intra-annual and inter-annual variability of structural properties of the canopy on the light extinction coefficient were simulated by implementing variability of the leaf inclination angle (LIA), which was confirmed in the study site. The results revealed good compatibility of the produced Landsat ETM+ LAI data set with the litter-estimated LAI. The results also showed high sensitivity of the LAI retrieval algorithm to variability of structural properties of the canopy: the implementation of LIA dynamics into the LAI retrieval algorithm significantly improved the model accuracy.     

GF-1星WFV相机的快速大气校正

高分一号卫星(GF-1)WFV相机是中国新型高分辨率传感器,为了更好地进行定量应用,需完成高精度大气校正,但需要解决数量大,辅助数据不足等关键问题。针对WFV相机构建了快速大气校正模型,(1)采用交叉定标方法借助Landsat 8数据完成辐射定标;(2)从WFV相机的辅助数据出发,计算得到太阳天顶角、观测天顶角等辅助信息;(3)考虑不同海拔大气分子散射的不同,完成基于海拔数据的分子散射校正;(4)采用深蓝算法,从第一波段(蓝光)反演得到气溶胶信息;(5)计算每个像元的大气校正参数,进而获取地表反射率,完成大气校正。在此基础上,利用IDL语言建立相应的大气校正模块,以过境华北地区的3景WFV数据为例进行大气校正实验。结果表明,模型能够快速完成大气校正,并能较好的去除大气分子与气溶胶影响,较好地还原植被、裸土等典型地表类型的光谱反射曲线,校正后的NDVI更好地反映了各地物的特征。     

Leaf Area Index Estimation Using Time-Series MODIS Data in Different Types of Vegetation

The aim of this study is to estimate leaf area index (LAI) in different type of plants using vegetation indices (VIs) and neural network algorithms retrieved from MODIS data. Four VI were calculated, and neural networks were built up based on MODIS surface reflectance products. Among the tested VIs, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and chlorophyll index (CI) appeared to be the best candidate indices in estimating LAI across sites with different vegetation types. The models having the highest accuracy were CI for grassland and deciduous broad leaf forest with determination coefficients (R-square above 0.70, and NDVI for crop R-square?=?0.78). Neural network showed better results than VI methods except in grassland sites. The added VI information showed no significant improvement of model accuracy for the neural networks in most sites.     

高分六号宽幅多光谱数据人工林类型分类

高分六号(GF-6)卫星于2018年成功发射,2019-03正式投入使用。由于GF-6宽幅相机的WFV(Wide Field of View)影像较GF-1的同类影像新增2个红边波段,将会提高对农业、林业、草原等资源监测能力。为了分析GF-6的WFV影像在人工林分类方面的能力,促进高分数据在林业领域的应用,本文选取广西高峰林场为研究区,以最新的GF-6 WFV影像为数据源,结合地面实测类型数据,进行广西南宁高峰林场的桉树,杉木等人工林类型提取。主要运用随机森林(random forests)的分层分类法:首先计算6种植被指数,并利用随机森林法进行植被指数的特征优选,然后确定4种波段组合数据集的分类方案,4种数据集分别为(1)无红边的前4个波段,(2)有红边的8个波段,(3) 8个波段加上未优化的植被指数特征组合,(4) 8个波段加上优化的植被指数特征组合。再进行WFV影像4种数据集的随机森林分类,随机森林采用分类回归树(CART)算法来生成分类树,结合了bagging和随机选择特征变量的优点,是一种有效的分类方法。最后比较4个方案的分类结果并进行精度验证。结果表明:方案2比方案1精度提高了4.99%,Kappa系数提高了0.058。说明包含红边的8波段数据比4个波段数据精度有大幅提升。方案4的8波段加上优化植被指数特征组合的分类精度最高,达到了85.38%,比方案2包含红边波段组和方案1无红边波段组的精度分别提高了3.98%,8.97%,Kappa系数分别提高了0.046,0.104。说明WFV影像加入红边波段比无红边波段精度明显增高。由结果可知,红边指数的引入,增强了植被信息,能够较准确地反映人工林类型特征差异,明显提升了人工林的分类精度。本研究方法可以有效改善广西人工林类型信息提取效果,为GF-6影像质量的评价及其在林业应用潜力提供科学参考依据。     

面向对象与卷积神经网络模型的GF-6 WFV影像作物分类

GF-6 WFV影像是中国首颗带有红边波段的中高分辨率8波段多光谱卫星的遥感影像,对于其影像及红边波段对作物分类影响的研究利用亟待展开。本文结合面向对象和深度学习提出一种适用于GF-6 WFV红边波段的卷积神经网络(RE-CNN)遥感影像作物分类方法。首先采用多尺度分割和ESP工具选择最佳分割参数完成影像分割,通过面向对象的CART决策树消除椒盐现象的同时提取植被区域,并转化为卷积神经网络的输入数据,最后基于Python和Numpy库构建的卷积神经网络模型(RE-CNN)用于影像作物分类及精度验证。有无红边波段的两组分类实验结果表明:在红边波段组,卷积神经网络(RE-CNN)作物分类识别取得了较好的效果,总体精度高达94.38%,相比无红边波段组分类精度提高了2.83%,验证了GF-6 WFV红边波段对作物分类的有效性。为GF-6 WFV红边波段影像用于作物的分类研究提供技术参考和借鉴价值。     

A physically based approach to model LAI from MODIS 250 m data in a tropical region

A time series of leaf area index (LAI) has been developed based on 16-day normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) at 250 m resolution (MOD250_LAI). The MOD250_LAI product uses a physical radiative transfer model which establishes a relationship between LAI, fraction of vegetation cover (FVC) and given patterns of surface reflectance, view-illumination conditions and optical properties of vegetation. In situ measurements of LAI and FVC made at 166 plots using hemispherical photography served for calibration of model parameters and validation of modelling results. Optical properties of vegetation cover, summarized by the light extinction coefficient, were computed at the local (pixel) level based on empirical models between ground-measured tree crown architecture at 85 sampling plots and spectral values in Landsat ETM+ bands. Influence of view-illumination conditions on optical properties of canopy was simulated by a view angle geometry model incorporating the solar zenith angle and the sensor viewing angle. The results revealed high compatibility of the produced MOD250_LAI data set with ground truth information and the 30 m resolution Landsat ETM+ LAI estimated using the similar algorithm. The produced MOD250_LAI was also compared with the global MODIS 1000-m LAI product (MOD15A2 LAI). Results show good consistency of the spatial distribution and temporal dynamics between the two LAI products. However, the results also showed that the annual LAI amplitude by the MOD15A2 product is significantly higher than by the MOD250_LAI. This higher amplitude is caused by a considerable underestimation of the tropical rainforest LAI by the MOD15A2 during the seasonal phases of low leaf production.     

运用动态谐波回归模型对MODIS叶面积指数时间序列产品的分析与预测

运用动态谐波回归模型(Dynamic Harmonic Regression,DHR)对MODIS的长时间序列的LAI产品进行分析,可以从中分离出LAI随时间变化的多年趋势、季节变化及残差等主要成分,通过建立的模型实现LAI年间变化的短时预测。本文将所述DHR模型分析方法试用于遥感数据产品随时间变化的信息提取,对LAI年间变化的预测结果证明该方法用于遥感像元尺度LAI产品的时间序列分析与预测的效果良好。     

针对GF-1遥感影像的基于影像与基于辐射传输模型的两种交叉定标方法比较

"高分一号"配置了4台16m分辨率多光谱宽幅(WFV)相机,组合观测幅宽达到800km。为了将其应用于定量遥感,需要对其进行精确的辐射定标。目前针对高分一号卫星有两种交叉定标方法,都在传统方法的基础上进行了改进。一种是基于影像的交叉定标方法(image-based),另一种是基于辐射传输模型和二向反射分布函数的交叉定标方法(RTM-BRDF)。本文采用这两种方法对高分一号(GF-1)的4个相机进行辐射定标,并对这两种方法进行了对比分析,发现对于WFV2和WFV3这两个近似星下点成像相机,image-based方法可以得到精度较高的辐射定标系数,而对于WFV1和WFV4这两个非星下点成像相机来说,RTM-BRDF方法得到的定标系数精度较高。因此,最终将两种方法结合给出GF-1 4个相机最终的定标系数。     

The Effect of Radiometric Resolution on the Retrieval of Leaf Area Index from Agricultural Crops

Motivated by the increasing availability of remote sensing data of high radiometric resolution, a study was conducted to determine whether high-resolution data (10 bits or more) yielded more accurate vegetation leaf area index (LAI) information than low-radiometric-resolution multispectral data (7-bit or less). The study evaluated the performance of simulated 12-bit LISS-III sensor data (derived from EO-1 hyperspectral Hyperion data) with original 7-bit LISS-III sensor data for the estimation of LAI of major agricultural crops (e.g., cotton, sugar cane, and rice). There was no significant improvement in the correlation coefficient encountered when using the high-radiometric-resolution (12-bit) LISS-III data versus the low-radiometric-resolution (7-bit) LISS-III data for the retrieval of LAI. The retrieval of LAI of agricultural crops met with moderate success, with overall correlation coefficients of around 0.55. These results suggest that satellite data of very high radiometric resolution may not be a required for remote measurement of LAI. Spectral bandwidth, band placement, and the method of retrieving biophysical parameters may be more important.     

一种高时空分辨率NDVI数据集构建方法-STAVFM

ETM NDVI可以用来在30m的尺度上开展植被的监测,然而在Landsat卫星16天的重访周期和云污染等因素的影响下,常常会在相当长的一段时间内无法获取有效的ETM NDVI数据,给这一尺度下的植被动态监测带来了一定困难。相比之下,MODIS虽然在空间上只有250m分辨率的NDVI产品,却可以每天进行相同区域的监测。针对ETM空间分辨率高和MODIS时间分辨率高的特点,本研究选择实验区,基于对STARFM方法的改进,构建不同时空分辨率NDVI的时空融合模型-STAVFM,使用该模型对ETM NDVI与MODIS NDVI融合,构建了高时空分辨率NDVI数据集。研究结果表明,通过MODIS NDVI时间变化信息与ETM NDVI空间差异信息的有机结合,实现缺失高空间分辨率NDVI的有效预测（3景预测NDVI与实际NDVI的相关系数分别达到了0.82、0.90和0.91）,从而构建高时空分辨率NDVI数据集。所构建的高时空分辨率NDVI数据集在时间上保留了高时间分辨率数据的时间变化趋势,空间上又反映了高空间分辨率数据的空间细节差异。     

Estimation of regional evapotranspiration over the North China Plain using geostationary satellite data

Data from the first operational Chinese geostationary satellite Fengyun-2C (FY-2C) satellite are applied in combination with Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite products for the assessment of regional evapotranspiration over the North China Plain. The approach is based on the improved triangle method, where the temperature–vegetation index space includes thermal inertia. Two thermal infrared channels from FY-2C are used to estimate surface temperature (Ts) based on a split window algorithm originally proposed for the MSG-SEVIRI sensor. Subsequently the high temporal resolution of FY-2C data is exploited to give the morning rise in Ts. Combined with the 16 days composite MODIS vegetation indices product (MOD13) at a spatial resolution of 5 km, evaporative fraction (EF) is estimated by interpolation in the ΔTs–NDVI triangular-shaped scatter space. Finally, regional actual evapotranspiration (ET) is derived from the evaporative fraction and available energy estimated from MODIS surface albedo products MCD43. Spatial variations of estimated surface variables (Ts, EF and ET) corresponded well to land cover patterns and farmland management practices. Estimated ET and EF also compared well to lysimeter data collected for the period June 2005–September 2007. The improved triangle method was also applied to MODIS products for comparison. Estimates based on FY-2C products proved to provide slightly better results than those based on MODIS products. The consistency of the estimated spatial variation with other spatial data supports the use of FY-2C data for ET estimation using the improved triangle method. Of particular value is the high temporal frequency of image acquisitions from FY-2C which improves the likelihood of obtaining cloud free image acquisitions as compared to polar orbiting sensors like MODIS.     

Atmospheric Correction Methods for GF-1 WFV1 Data in Hazy Weather

Increasing hazy weather in the eastern area of China limits the potential application of high-resolution satellite data and poses a huge challenge for the atmospheric correction of remote sensing images. Consequently, it is necessary to find the most suitable atmospheric correction method under hazy condition. In this study, five kinds of atmospheric correction models, including 6S, COST, FLAASH, QUAC, and ATCOR2, are applied to the GaoFen-1 Wild Field Camera (GF-1 WFV1) data in the eastern area of China, and examined by both quantitative and qualitative analyses using the measured spectrum data. Experimental results indicated that ATCOR2 achieves the best performance among the atmospheric correction methods qualitatively and quantitatively. Hence, specifically for the study area and GF-1 WFV1 dataset, ATCOR2 is the most suitable atmospheric correction approach under hazy in the eastern area of China.     

Intercomparison and validation of MODIS and GLASS leaf area index (LAI) products over mountain areas: A case study in southwestern China

The validation study of leaf area index (LAI) products over rugged surfaces not only gives additional insights into data quality of LAI products, but deepens understanding of uncertainties regarding land surface process models depended on LAI data over complex terrain. This study evaluated the performance of MODIS and GLASS LAI products using the intercomparison and direct validation methods over southwestern China. The spatio-temporal consistencies, such as the spatial distributions of LAI products and their statistical relationship as a function of topographic indices, time, and vegetation types, respectively, were investigated through intercomparison between MODIS and GLASS products during the period 2011–2013. The accuracies and change ranges of these two products were evaluated against available LAI reference maps over 10 sampling regions which standed for typical vegetation types and topographic gradients in southwestern China.The results show that GLASS LAI exhibits higher percentage of good quality data (i.e. successful retrievals) and smoother temporal profiles than MODIS LAI. The percentage of successful retrievals for MODIS and GLASS is vulnerable to topographic indices, especially to relief amplitude. Besides, the two products do not capture seasonal dynamics of crop, especially in spring over heterogeneously hilly regions. The yearly mean LAI differences between MODIS and GLASS are within ±0.5 for 64.70% of the total retrieval pixels over southwestern China. The spatial distribution of mean differences and temporal profiles of these two products are inclined to be dominated by vegetation types other than topographic indices. The spatial and temporal consistency of these two products is good over most area of grasses/cereal crops; however, it is poor for evergreen broadleaf forest. MODIS presents more reliable change range of LAI than GLASS through comparison with fine resolution reference maps over most of sampling regions. The accuracies of direct validation are obtained for GLASS LAI (r = 0.35, RMSE = 1.72, mean bias = −0.71) and MODIS LAI (r = 0.49, RMSE = 1.75, mean bias = −0.67). GLASS performs similarly to MODIS, but may be marginally inferior to MODIS based on our direct validation results. The validation experience demonstrates the necessity and importance of topographic consideration for LAI estimation over mountain areas. Considerable attention will be paid to the improvements of surface reflectance, retrieval algorithm and land cover types so as to enhance the quality of LAI products in topographically complex terrain.     

GF-1卫星WFV影像间匀色方法

影像匀色方法是决定拼接后影像能否进一步用于遥感定量化应用的重要环节之一。本文针对我国高分辨率对地观测系统的首发星——GF-1卫星宽覆盖WFV传感器4相机拼接成像特点,提出了一种基于交叉辐射定标的影像间匀色方法。该方法首先利用传统的交叉定标方法获取某一台WFV相机在轨绝对辐射定标系数,然后采用统计分析和仿真模拟方法建立了相邻相机影像间DN值、表观辐亮度的相关模型,在完成相机间绝对辐射性能传递的同时,实现了影像间匀色处理。试验结果表明利用本文获取的交叉辐射定标系数能够有效地消除相邻相机影像重叠区域辐射不一致性的问题,实现WFV影像间匀色。该匀色方法可为其他类似卫星传感器影像间匀色提供参考依据。