基于栅格DEM的地形特征提取与分析

以陕北延安地区燕儿沟流域为实验样区,运用比较分析法和数理统计法进行基于栅格DEM的地形特征提取和分析,以及DEM分辨率对地形特征的影响,并计算和比较了地形特征的空间统计分布。研究表明:一个相对真实的DEM能够通过修改生成DEM的基本材料,以及对DEM进行再加工而获得。由于DEM分辨率的不同,由此得到的地形特征值(如坡度、地形指数、河网密度等)在统计特性上也会随之变化。随着DEM分辨率的降低,坡度减小,地形坦化,地形指数均值变大,流域总面积变大,子流域数量减少,河流总长度减小,河网密度降低。     

Assessment of freely available CartoDEM V1 and V1.1R1 with respect to high resolution aerial photogrammetric DEM in high mountains

The accuracy of DEMs shows wide variations from one terrain to another and it needs to be determined. This study evaluates NRSC (National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad, India) CartoDEM V1 and V1.1R1 with respect to resampled ADS80 DEM for parts of the Himalayas. Both the test DEMs were properly registered with reference to resampled ADS80 DEM and then individually subtracted to get the difference DEMs. Visual and statistical analyses were performed to assess the quality of the tested DEMs in terms of visible terrain and vertical accuracy. For calculating the accuracies in different terrain classes, slope and aspect maps were generated from the ADS80 DEM. Properly registered Landsat5 TM data were used for the development of the land cover map with four classes. The overall vertical accuracy measured for CartoDEM V1 was 269.9 m (LE90), while CartoDEM V1.1R1 showed huge improvement in the accuracy with 68.5 m (LE90).     

DEM分辨率对小流域地形水文特征提取的影响

基于ArcGIS水文分析工具研究DEM分辨率对提取流域地形和水文参数的影响,选择黄土丘陵沟壑区典型小流域—韭园沟流域为实验区,该流域地形复杂,沟壑纵横,DEM分辨率变化对其地形表达有很大影响。研究表明,DEM分辨率对小流域面积、流域高程、坡向的表达或提取精度影响较小,而对坡度、河道长度、河网密度和河道分级等因子提取有较大影响。     

The isotropic organization of DEM structure and extraction of valley lines using hexagonal grid

The automatic extraction of valley lines (VLs) from digital elevation models (DEMs) has had a long history in the GIS and hydrology fields. The quality of the extracted results relies on the geometrical shape, spatial tessellation, and placement of the grids in the DEM structure. The traditional DEM structure consists of square grids with an eight‐neighborhood relationship, where there is an inconsistent distance measurement between orthogonal neighborhoods and diagonal neighborhoods. The directional difference results in the extracted VLs by the D8 algorithm not guaranteeing isotropy characteristics. Alternatively, hexagonal grids have been proved to be advantageous over square grids due to their consistent connectivity, isotropy of local neighborhoods, higher symmetry, increased compactness, and more. Considering the merits above, this study develops an approach to VL extraction from DEMs based on hexagonal grids. First, the pre‐process phase contains the depression filling, flow direction calculation, and flow accumulation calculation based on the six‐neighborhood relationship. Then, the flow arcs are connected, followed by estimating the flow direction. Finally, the connected paths are organized into a tree structure. To explore the effectiveness of hexagonal grids, comparative experiments are implemented against traditional DEMs with square grids using three sample regions. By analyzing the results between these two grid structures via visual and quantitative comparison, we conclude that the hexagonal grid structure has an outstanding ability in maintaining the location accuracy and bending characteristics of extracted valley networks. That is to say, the DEM‐derived VLs based on hexagonal grids have better spatial agreement with mapped river systems and lower shape diversion under the same resolution representation. Therefore, the DEMs with hexagonal grids can extract finer valley networks with the same data volume relative to traditional DEM.     

黄土丘陵沟壑第三副区水文地貌关系正确DEM的建立与评价

本文以黄土丘陵沟壑第三副区的藉河流域为研究区,利用ANUDEM软件和1:5万地形图研究了水文地貌关系正确DEM的建立方法,从派生等高线与原始数字化等高线对比等方面对建立的DEM进行了质量评价。并且与传统TIN方法建立的不同水平分辨率的DEM做了比较。结果表明:由等高线、高程点、河流和陡崖线在ANUDEM5.1中生成的DEM质量优于由等高线、高程点和地形特征点用TIN方法生成的DEM。ANUDEM建立的DEM更能精确地反映水文地貌特征。在此基础上,研究了确定集水面积阈值的方法,通过在Arc/Info环境下运行AML程序自动提取了基于水文地貌关系正确DEM的流域特征。     

滇池SRTM DEM数据的流域特征自动提取

以滇池流域为试验对象,在NASA发布的3弧秒SRTM DEM数据的基础上,运用Arc Hydro Tools进行流域特征的提取,结果表明,以3弧秒的SRTM数据为基础提取的流域河网与水利部门提供的数字河网基本相符,而提取的流域面积与实际流域面积十分接近,显示了SRTM DEM数据在中小型湖泊流域地表水文模拟方面的优势.     

Validation of Indian National DEM from Cartosat-1 Data

CartoDEM is an Indian National DEM generated from Cartosat-1 stereo data. Cartosat-1, launched in May, 2005, is an along track (aft ?5°, Fore +26°) stereo with 2.5 m GSD, give base-height ratio of 0.63 with 27 km swath. The operational procedure of DEM generation comprises stereo strip triangulation of 500?×?27 km segment with 10 m posting along with 2.5 m resolution ortho image and free—access posting of 30 m has been made available (bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in). A multi approach evaluation of CartoDEM comprising (a) absolute accuracy with respect to ground control points for two sites namely Jagatsinghpur -flat and Dharamshala- hilly; second site i.e. Alwar-plain and hilly with high resolution aerial DEM, (b) relative difference between SRTM and ASTERDEM (c) absolute accuracy with ICESat GLAS for two sites namely Jagatsinghpur-plain and Netravathi river, Western Ghats-hilly (d) relative comparison of drainage delineation with respect to ASTERDEM is reported here. The absolute height accuracy in flat terrain was 4.7 m with horizontal accuracy of 7.3 m, while in hilly terrain it was 7 m height with a horizontal accuracy of 14 m. While comparison with ICESat GLAS data absolute height difference of plain and hilly was 5.2 m and 7.9 m respectively. When compared to SRTM over Indian landmass, 90 % of pixels reported were within ±8 m difference. The drainage delineation shows better accuracy and clear demarcation of catchment ridgeline and more reliable flow-path prediction in comparison with ASTER. The results qualify Indian DEM for using it operationally which is equivalent and better than the other publicly available DEMs like SRTM and ASTERDEM.     

不同精度DEM流域地形特征提取分析及坡度误差控制研究

以北京密云水库牤牛河流域为试验区,对该流域4种精度DEM提取的流域地形值进行分析,并基于此对不同精度DEM所提取的坡度值进行了误差量化控制,运用曲线回归方法,建立了坡度损失拟合方程系.试验证明,该方法对坡度误差控制较好,具有较大的应用价值.     

坡度随水平分辨率变化及其空间格局研究

以黄土丘陵沟壑区的县南沟流域为研究区,基于1∶1万地形图,利用ANUDEM软件生成5m到200m分辨率DEM,并利用Arc/Info中计算坡度的方法提取了各种分辨率的坡度。研究表明,随着DEM分辨率的降低,单个样点坡度值表现出不确定性,但同一坡度级所有栅格点的坡度均值呈现一定的规律性,低坡度段表现为先升高后降低,中坡度段呈现微弱变化,陡坡度段呈现对数降低趋势;沟沿线上坡度值呈比较剧烈的下降趋势、分水线和流水线上坡度缓慢下降。     

Lidar Elevation Data for Surface Hydrologic Modeling: Resolution and Representation Issues

This paper is concerned with the application of high spatial resolution elevation data derived from light detection and ranging technologies (lidar) to surface hydrologic modeling. In recent years, airborne lidar technology has been employed to develop high accuracy digital elevation models (DEMs) with horizontal resolution on the order of a few meters. As with any spatial data product there are limits to the lidar's practical use that vary with the intended application. This paper considers potential issues and challenges for the use of lidar-derived DEMs in surface hydrologic modeling applications, such as characterizing flow direction and power, identifying sub-basins in a watershed, and calculating upstream contributing area and other variables. We compare results using conventional 30m DEMs and 6m lidar for a high relief study area and a low relief study area. Results are more comparable between these data sources, regardless of hydrologic operation, for the high relief area, while the similarity of results in the low relief area is dependent upon the particular operation. Post-processing on the lidar data successfully removed such flow obstacles as bridges that might have artificially impeded surface flow. An exploration of the effect of spatial resolution on results suggests that cell size is a more significant factor than production method.     

Comparison of basin morphometry derived from topographic maps,ASTER and SRTM DEMs: an example from Kerala,India

The drainage network of a sixth-order tropical river basin, viz. Ithikkara river basin, was extracted from different sources such as Survey of India topographic maps (1: 50,000; TOPO) and digital elevation data of Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) (30 m) and Shuttle Radar Topography Mapping Mission (SRTM) (90 m). Basin morphometric attributes were estimated to evaluate the accuracy of the digital elevation model (DEM)-derived drainage networks for hydrologic applications as well as terrain characterization. The stream networks derived from ASTER and SRTM DEMs show significant agreement (with slight overestimation of lower order streams) with that of TOPO. The study suggests that SRTM (despite the coarser spatial resolution) provides better results, in drainage delineation and basin morphometry, compared to ASTER. Further, the variability of basin morphometry among the data sources might be attributed to spatial variation of elevation, raster grid size and vertical accuracy of the DEMs as well as incapability of the surface hydrologic analysis functions in the GIS platform.     

基于填挖方分析的DEM精度评价模型

针对DEM高程中误差评价指标的不足,提出了一种基于填挖方分析的DEM精度评价模型以及计算方法,将DEM填挖方误差E_c定义为待评价DEM与参考DEM在同一区域的三维体积差异和与该区域面积之商。探究了DEM填挖方误差和DEM分辨率R以及地形平均坡度S之间的关系,得到DEM填挖方误差的定量估算模型为E_c=0.004 8·R·S。实验表明,模型估算精度达95.85%以上。该模型为在不同地形条件下,确定满足限差要求的DEM分辨率提供了依据。     

Simple DEM-Based Methods to Delineate Channel Networks for Hydrogeomorphological Mapping

To delineate channel networks from DEMs regardless of landform type, this article proposes a new method using slope-weighted flow accumulation. To validate the method, SRTM-3, a global DEM dataset with a resolution of approximately 90 m, was used for analysis of the Loess Plateau, China. Channel networks delineated with and without slope-weighted flow accumulation were derived in both uplands and hilly lands for comparison. In the weighted flow accumulation method, the thresholds for delineating the channels were defined by detecting a turning point in the frequency distribution of the weighted flow accumulation function or by visual similarity with drainage channels extracted from topographic maps. The channel networks delineated with weighting showed closer correlation with a topographic map than the channel networks without weighting, despite the differences in thresholds. Moreover, the channel networks delineated with weighting represented the differences between landform types, while the channel networks without weighting did not. Weighting on the basis of the slope angle shows promise as a general channel delineation method which reflects the actual topography due to its hydrogeomorphological functions.     

The Effect of DEM Raster Resolution on First Order, Second Order and Compound Terrain Derivatives

It is well known that the grid cell size of a raster digital elevation model has significant effects on derived terrain variables such as slope, aspect, plan and profile curvature or the wetness index. In this paper the quality of DEMs derived from the interpolation of photogrammetrically derived elevation points in Alberta, Canada, is tested. DEMs with grid cell sizes ranging from 100 to 5 m were interpolated from 100 m regularly spaced elevation points and numerous surface‐specific point elevations using the ANUDEM interpolation method. In order to identify the grid resolution that matches the information content of the source data, three approaches were applied: density analysis of point elevations, an analysis of cumulative frequency distributions using the Kolmogorov‐Smirnov test and the root mean square slope measure. Results reveal that the optimum grid cell size is between 5 and 20 m, depending on terrain com‐plexity and terrain derivative. Terrain variables based on 100 m regularly sampled elevation points are compared to an independent high‐resolution DEM used as a benchmark. Subsequent correlation analysis reveals that only elevation and local slope have a strong positive relationship while all other terrain derivatives are not represented realistically when derived from a coarse DEM. Calculations of root mean square errors and relative root mean square errors further quantify the quality of terrain derivatives.     

Spheroidal equal angular DEMs: The specificity of morphometric treatment

Digital elevation models (DEMs) are commonly constructed using two main types of regular grids: plane square grids and spheroidal equal angular grids. Methods and algorithms intended for plane square‐gridded DEMs should not be directly applied to spheroidal equal angular DEMs. This is because these grids have fundamentally different geometry. However, some researchers continue to apply square‐grid algorithms to spheroidal equal angular DEMs. It seems appropriate to consider once again the specifity of morphometric treatment of spheroidal equal angular DEMs. This article, first, demonstrates possibilities of direct calculation of local, nonlocal, and combined morphometric variables from spheroidal equal angular DEMs exemplified by slope gradient, catchment area, and topographic index. Second, the article shows computational errors when algorithms for plane square‐gridded DEMs are unreasonably applied to spheroidal equal angular DEMs. The study is exemplified by two DEMs. A medium‐resolution DEM of a relatively small, high‐mountainous area (Mount Elbrus) was extracted from the SRTM1 DEM. A low‐resolution DEM of a vast region with the diverse topography (the central and western regions of Kenya) was extracted from the SRTM30_PLUS DEM. The results show that application of square‐grid methods to spheroidal equal angular DEMs leads to substantial computational errors in models of morphometric variables.     

DEM Fusion using a modified k-means clustering algorithm

Digital elevation models (DEMs) are a necessary dataset for modelling the Earth’s surface; however, all DEMs contain error. Researchers can reduce this error using DEM fusion techniques since numerous DEMs can be available for a region. However, the use of a clustering algorithm in DEM fusion has not been previously reported. In this study a new DEM fusion algorithm based on a clustering approach that works on multiple DEMs to exploit consistency in the estimates as indicators of accuracy and precision is presented. The fusion approach includes slope and elevation thresholding, k-means clustering of the elevation estimates at each cell location, as well as filtering and smoothing of the fusion product. Corroboration of the input DEMs, and the products of each step of the fusion algorithm, with a higher accuracy reference DEM enabled a detailed analysis of the effectiveness of the DEM fusion algorithm. The main findings of the research were: the k-means clustering of the elevations reduced the precision which also impacted the overall accuracy of the estimates; the number of final cluster members and the standard deviation of elevations before clustering both had a strong relationship to the error in the k-means estimates.     

Topographic correction of ALOS-PALSAR images using InSAR-derived DEM

Topographic corrections of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images over hilly regions are vital for retrieval of correct backscatter values associated with natural targets. The coarse resolution external digital elevation models (DEM) available for topographic corrections of high resolution SAR images often result into degradation of spatial resolution or improper estimation of backscatter values in SAR images. Also, many a times the external DEMs do not spatially co-register well with the SAR data. The present study showcases the methodology and results of topographic correction of ALOS-PALSAR image using high resolution DEM generated from the same data. High resolution DEMs of Jaipur region, India were generated using multiple pair SAR images acquired from ALOS-PALSAR using interferometric (InSAR) techniques. The DEMs were validated using differential global positioning system measured elevation values as ground control points and were compared with photogrammetric DEM (advanced spaceborne thermal emission and reflection radiometer – ASTER) and SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) DEM. It was observed that ALOS-PALSAR images with optimum baseline parameters produced high resolution DEM with better height accuracy. Finally, the validated DEM was used for topographic correction of ALOS-PALSAR images of the same region and were found to produce better result as compared with ASTER and SRTM-DEM.     

一种改进的快速最小高差DEM匹配方法

利用最小高差(LZD)法进行DEM匹配时,当待匹配DEM的分辨率比参考DEM高时,确定的同名点中存在冗余,将导致计算冗余和效率降低。为解决上述问题,对LZD法确定同名点的模型进行改化,提出一种改进的基于最小高差原理的快速DEM匹配方法。该方法根据参考DEM的格网点确定同名点以避免冗余,并通过近似确定同名点及其高差,有效简化了计算过程。实验结果表明,该方法在保证较高的收敛速度和匹配精度的基础上,可有效提高计算效率,且计算效率不随待匹配DEM分辨率提高而降低,DEM间分辨率差异越大,方法的优势越明显。     

Evaluation of vertical accuracy of open source Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a quantitative representation of terrain and is important for Earth science and hydrological applications. DEM can be generated using photogrammetry, interferometry, ground and laser surveying and other techniques. Some of the DEMs such as ASTER, SRTM, and GTOPO 30 are freely available open source products. Each DEM contains intrinsic errors due to primary data acquisition technology and processing methodology in relation with a particular terrain and land cover type. The accuracy of these datasets is often unknown and is non-uniform within each dataset. In this study we evaluate open source DEMs (ASTER and SRTM) and their derived attributes using high postings Cartosat DEM and Survey of India (SOI) height information. It was found that representation of terrain characteristics is affected in the coarse postings DEM. The overall vertical accuracy shows RMS error of 12.62 m and 17.76 m for ASTER and SRTM DEM respectively, when compared with Cartosat DEM. The slope and drainage network delineation are also violated. The terrain morphology strongly influences the DEM accuracy. These results can be highly useful for researchers using such products in various modeling exercises.     

Evaluation and Comparison of Multi Resolution DEM Derived Through Cartosat-1 Stereo Pair – A Case Study of Damanganga Basin

The study evaluates and compares Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data of various grid spacing derived using high resolution Cartosat 1 stereo data for hydrologic applications. DEM is essential in modeling different environmental processes which depend on surface elevation. The accuracy of derived DEM varies with grid spacing and source. The CartoDEM is the photogrammetric DEM derived from stereo pairs. Damanganga basin lying in the Western Ghats was analysed using 11 Carto stereo pairs. The process of triangulation resulted in RMSE of 0.42. DEM was extracted at 10 m, 20 m, 30 m, 40 m, 50 m and 90 m grid spacing and compared with ASTER GDEM (30 m) and SRTM DEM (90 m). DEM accuracy was checked with Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) statistic for random points generated in different elevation zones. Extracted stream networks were compared based on Correctness Index and Figure of Merit index, calculated for all the Digital Elevation Models at varying cell sizes. In order to further evaluate the DEM’s, a simple flood simulation with no water movement and no consideration of real time precipitation data was carried out and relationship between heights of flood stage and inundation area for each Digital Elevation Model was also established.