Spectral properties of volcanic materials from hyperspectral field and satellite data compared with LiDAR data at Mt. Etna

Spectral properties of volcanic materials in the optical region (350–2500 nm) of the electromagnetic spectrum are analyzed. The goal is to characterize air-fall deposits, recent lava flows, and old lava flows based on their spectral reflectance properties and on the textural characteristics (grain size) of pyroclastic deposits at an active basaltic volcano. Data were acquired during a spectroradiometric field survey at Mt. Etna (Italy) in summer 2003 and combined with hyperspectral satellite (Hyperion) and airborne LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data. In addition, air-fall deposits produced by the highly explosive 2002–2003 eruption have been sampled and spectrally characterized at different distances from the new vents. The spectral analysis shows that air-fall deposits are characterized by low reflectance values besides variations in grain size. This distinguishes them from other surface materials. Old lava flows show highest reflectance values due to weathering and vegetation cover. The spectral data set derived from the field survey has been compared to corrected satellite hyperspectral data in order to investigate the Hyperion capabilities to differentiate the surface cover using the reflectance properties. This has allowed us to identify the 2002–2003 air-fall deposits in a thematic image just few months after their emplacement. Moreover, the observed differences in the field spectra of volcanic surfaces have been compared with differences in the signal intensity detected by airborne LiDAR survey showing the possibility to include information on the texture of volcanic surfaces at Mt. Etna. The approach presented here may be particularly useful for remote and inaccessible volcanic areas and also represents a potentially powerful tool for the exploration of extraterrestrial volcanic surfaces.     

Mt. Etna volcano high-resolution topography: airborne LiDAR modelling validated by GPS data

High-resolution digital topography is essential for land management and planning in any type of territory as well as the reproduction of the Earth surface in a geocoded digital format that allows several Digital Earth applications. In a volcanic environment, Digital Elevation Models are a valid reference for multi-temporal analyses aimed to observe frequent changes of a volcano edifice and for the relative detailed morphological and structural analyses. For the first time, a DTM (Digital Terrain Model) and a DSM (Digital Surface Model) covering the entire Mt. Etna volcano (Italy) derived from the same airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) are here presented. More than 250 million 3D LiDAR points have been processed to distinguish ground elements from natural and anthropic features. The end product is the highly accurate representation of Mt. Etna landscape (DSM) and ground topography (DTM) dated 2005. Both models have a high spatial resolution of 2?m and cover an area of 620?km². The DTM has been validated by GPS ground control points. The vertical accuracy has been evaluated, resulting in a root-mean-square-error of ±?0.24?m. The DTM is available as electronic supplement and represents a valid support for various scientific studies.     

利用PSInSAR研究意大利Etna火山的地表形变

利用2003~2010年升轨、降轨ASAR数据对意大利Etna火山的地表形变进行PSInSAR处理,获取了该火山区域的高精度形变速率场,在此基础上,对部分特征区域点位进行时序分析。结果显示,Etna火山的东部区域的形变量变化大,LOS方向形变速率约为7~12 mm/a,西部区域变化较小,LOS方向形变速率仅为1~3 mm/a;火山东南和南侧存在两个较大垂直形变区域,其垂直形变速率分别为-4 mm/a和12mm/a。目前,Etna火山东南侧区域地表形变起伏较大,位于东南区域下的火山源岩浆活动活跃、岩浆体积处于补充期。     

Ground deformation of Papandayan volcano before, during, and after the 2002 eruption as detected by GPS surveys

Papandayan is an A-type active volcano located in the southern part of Garut Regency, about 70 km southeast of Bandung, Indonesia. Its earliest recorded eruption, and the most violent and devastating outburst, occurred in 1772. The latest eruptions occurred in the period from 11 November–8 December 2002, and consisted of phreatic, freatomagmatic, and magmatic types of eruption. During the latest eruption period, GPS surveys were conducted at several points inside and around the crater in a radial mode, using the reference point located at the Papandayan observatory, about 10 km from the crater. At the points closest to the erupting craters, GPS displacements up to a few decimeters were detected, whereas at the points outside the crater, the displacements were at the centimeter level. The magnitude of displacements observed at each point also showed a temporal variation according to the eruption characteristics. The results show that deformation during eruption tends to be local, e.g. just around the crater. The pressure source is difficult to be properly modeled from GPS results, due to the limited GPS data available and differences in topography, geological structure, and/or rheology related to each GPS station.     

Understanding the 2007-2008 eruption of Anak Krakatau Volcano by combining remote sensing technique and seismic data

One of the most violent volcanic eruptions in recorded history is the Krakatau eruption on August 27, 1883. This caldera-forming eruption destroyed two thirds of the Krakatau volcanic island in the Sunda Strait resulting in the remaining three small islands later known as the Krakatau complex. From 1927 to 1929, eruptions in the center of Krakatau complex have produced a new volcano named Anak Krakatau, which continuously builds its body through eruptions until now. One eruption event took place between 2007 and 2008 with several eruptions that lasted in total from the end of October 2007 to August 2008. Eruptions were characterized by Strombolian activity with ash columns 1 km high, as well as pyroclastic and lava flows. We monitored the ground deformation of Anak Krakatau Volcano by interfering PALSAR data from June 2007 to February 2009. The result of InSAR technique shows a complex pattern of ground deformation. Inflation up to 4 cm, together with subsidence around the crater, was measured for almost three months before the eruption with a volume increase of approximately 1 × 10⁶ m³. After the eruption, the southwest side of the volcanic cone subsided by 18 cm, whereas the northeast side of the cone uplifted 12 cm in almost two years. The observed ground deformation after the eruption can be explained by 4 m of tensile opening along a dipping rectangular tensile dislocation buried in an elastic half-space, approximately 400 m below sea level.     

使用ERS-1/2干涉测量SAR数据生成DEM

干涉合成孔径雷达（ＩＮＳＡＲ）数据已被证明能生产精确的数据高程模型（ＤＥＭ），我们已开发了从单视ＳＡＲ复影像数据自动生成数字高程模型的新软件，基于ＳＡＲ多视强度影像的最小二乘曩像匹配被用于复影像对的配准，达到很高的配准精度（０．０１～０．０５像元精度）。一种新的计算目标点３维坐标（Ｘ，Ｙ，Ｚ）的方程还被提出，卫星轨道，姿态和基线参数以及相位常数被纳入在方程中并被表示了时间的线性函数，利用至少６个地面控制点能够同时估算这些参数，本文还给出了意大利埃特地区ＥＲＳ－１／２ＳＡＲ数据处理结果。     

Position and velocity reliability testing in degraded GPS signal environments

Reliability testing, namely receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM), consists of statistical testing of least-squares residuals of observations, e.g., on an epoch-by-epoch basis aiming towards reliable navigation fault detection and exclusion (FDE). In this paper, classic RAIM and FDE methods are extended with testing of range-rate residuals to find inconsistent velocity solutions in order to contribute to the reliability of the system with special focus on degraded signal environments. Reliability enhancement efforts discussed include a Backward-FDE scheme based on statistical outlier detection and an iteratively reweighted robust estimation technique, a modified Danish method. In addition, measurement weighting assigned to code and Doppler observations is assessed in the paper in order to allow fitting a priori variance models to the estimation processes. The schemes discussed are also suitable in terms of computational convenience for a combined GPS/Galileo system. The objective of this paper is to assess position and velocity reliability testing and enhancement in urban and indoor conditions and to analyze the navigation accuracy conditions with high sensitivity GPS (HSGPS) tests. The results show the necessity of weighted estimation and FDE for reliability enhancement in degraded signal-environment navigation.     

Response of GPS occultation signals to atmospheric gravity waves and retrieval of gravity wave parameters

We show that the amplitude of the Global Positioning System (GPS) signals in the radio occultation (RO) experiments is an indicator of the activity of the gravity waves (GW) in the atmosphere. The amplitude of the GPS RO signals is more sensitive to the atmospheric wave structures than is the phase. Early investigations used only the phase of the GPS occultation signals for statistical investigation of the GW activity in the height interval 10–40 km on a global scale. In this study, we use the polarization equations and Hilbert transform to find the 1-D GW radio image in the atmosphere by analyzing the amplitude of the RO signal. The radio image, also called the GW portrait, consists of the phase and amplitude of the GW as functions of height. We demonstrate the potential of this method using the amplitude data from GPS/Meteorology (GPS/MET) and satellite mission Challenge Mini-satellite Payload (CHAMP) RO events. The GW activity is nonuniformly distributed with the main contribution associated with the tropopause and the secondary maximums related to the GW breaking regions. Using our method we find the vertical profiles of the horizontal wind perturbations and its vertical gradient associated with the GW influence. The estimated values of the horizontal wind perturbations are in fairly good agreement with radiosonde data. The horizontal wind perturbations v(h) are ±1 to ±5 m s with vertical gradients dv/dh ±0.5 to ±15 m s km at height 10–40 km. The height dependence of the GW vertical wavelength was inferred through the differentiation of the GW phase. Analysis of this dependence using the dispersion relationship for the GW gives the estimation of the projection of the horizontal background wind velocity on the direction of the GW propagation. For the event considered, the magnitude of this projection changes between 1.5 and 10 m s at heights of 10–40 km. We conclude that the amplitude of the GPS occultation signals contain important information about the wave processes in the atmosphere on a global scale.     

利用残差统计检验评估区域GPS大地测量网解算方案

采用美国喷气推进实验室JPL发展的GIPSY软件解算区域GPS网，比较了固家精密星历和同时固定精密星历及卫星钟参数2种解算方案，残差统计检验表明前者的左中仍保留了部分未解出的信号而后者的残差接近于白噪声高斯分布，解算结果与ITRF96的比较和对重复率的统计表明，残差分布合理的解算较优，简单的线差统计检验的计算可提供重要的解算评估。     

精密单点定位不等精度观测值的RKF研究

推导了精密单点定位含有粗差观测数据的M-LS滤波原理,对等价权阵采用三段降权函数实现抗差。从新息和残差的协方差关系出发,利用对粗差敏感的残差标准差作为抗差因子。通过迭代减弱卫星间载波残差及其抗差因子的相关性。针对载波和伪距观测值不等观测精度和不相关性,采用双抗差因子实现静态抗差卡尔曼滤波（robust Kalman filtering,RKF）。采用标准卡尔曼滤波、基于新息RKF、基于残差的增益矩阵双抗差因子RKF、基于残差的等价权阵双抗差因子RKF等4种模型,分别对一组实测数据解算分析。结果表明,基于新息RKF对精度较高的载波粗差不敏感;基于残差的增益矩阵RKF对载波较小的粗差抗差效果较差,且发生粗差历元时刻的状态参数与真值偏差较大;而基于残差构造的等价权阵双抗差因子RKF可以非常精确和高效地实现抗差,单个卫星粗差对测站位置参数影响小于1 mm。     

全球GPS测站垂向周年变化统计改正模型的建立

对GPS测站坐标进行非线性变化的研究和建模,是削弱测站非线性运动的有效途径。由于导致测站坐标非线性变化的机制具有多样性和复杂性,目前还未能建立一个包含多种机制影响的理论改正模型来削弱测站的非线性运动。本文基于全球近500个实测的GPS测站垂向坐标残差时间序列,研究发现了测站垂向坐标周年项的全球分布规律,并分别针对南北半球构建了两个基于实测数据的周年变化统计改正模型。试验表明,本文提出的统计改正模型能削弱全球大部分GPS测站30%~50%的垂向坐标残差。     

观测卫星不足时的GPS/INS紧组合抗差自适应滤波

常规GPS/INS紧组合抗差自适应滤波只适用于卫星数≥4的情况,且预测残差构造自适应因子要求观测值可靠。针对该局限性,对常规抗差自适应滤波算法做出两点改进:1)采用两步滤波,用第1步常规EKF滤波残差构造第二步抗差算法的粗差判别量;2)在第2步滤波用预测残差构造自适应因子时,剔除异常观测值对应的预测残差和预测残差协方差,以削弱观测异常对自适应因子的不良影响。实验结果表明,常规抗差算法在卫星数4时不适用。常规自适应滤波算法在观测值存在异常的情况下无法正确修正模型异常。改进后的抗差自适应滤波算法在组合系统观测卫星数4且观测值存在异常的情况下,仍能正确修正观测粗差和动力学模型异常,能够达到良好的导航精度。     

20 years of active deformation on volcano caldera: Joint analysis of InSAR and AInSAR techniques

InSAR (interferometric synthetic aperture radar) techniques are applied to investigate last two decades of surface deformation of the Cerro Blanco/Robledo Caldera (CBRC). The objective is the identification of deforming patterns that alter the shape of these complex structures when they show low or null activity. The joint analysis between results by using different methods over a long time span, represents a unique opportunity to improve knowledge of volcanic structures located in remote area and, for this, poorly or not monitored.In this work we identify displacement patterns over the volcanic area, by using both classical differential InSAR analysis, and A-InSAR (advanced InSAR) analysis based on SAR data acquired by ERS-1/2 and ENVISAT sensors during the 1996–2010 time interval. The satellite-derived information allows us to characterize the deformation pattern that affected the CBRC and shows that the actively deforming CBRC is subsiding in the observed period. In order to figure out the deformation history of CBRC, we analyzed the four sub-periods 1992–1996, 1996–2000, and 2005–2010 by using standard differential InSAR technique, and the interval 2003–2007 by adopting an A-InSAR technique.Subsidence velocities of the CBRC caldera are about 2.6 cm/yr in the time interval 1992–1996 (measured with ERS descending data), 1.8 cm/yr in 1996–2000 (ERS descending data), 1.2 cm/yr in 2003–2007 (ENVISAT descending data), and finally, 0.87 cm/yr in 2005–2010 (ENVISAT ascending data). Moreover, outside the caldera and in particular in the NW area, we observe the presence of positive velocity values. Results show that: (a) a decreasing subsidence rate might be related to the reduction of volcanic activity in correspondence of the CBRC; (b) positive velocity signal, decreasing with time, might be interpreted as follows: – evidence of volcano structure lateral spreading, according to the velocity pattern distribution in this area and to the relative local flanks topographic convexity of the volcano structure; – uplift signal of this sector of mountain chain; – combination of the two mechanisms above.     

雾灵山山基掩星观测反演误差分析

运用山基GPS掩星探测技术对2005年8月河北雾灵山山基GPS掩星观测试验数据进行了处理,获得了接收机高度以下的大气折射率廓线;分析了掩星反演结果的内部符合情况,并利用同时进行的联合探空观测数据,将探空结果与掩星反演结果进行了比对分析.分析结果表明,山基GPS掩星反演大气折射率的内部符合精度优于1%,与常规探空结果的平均偏差为5.9%.反演结果偏小,标准偏差为5.6%.     

Site-specific multipath characteristics of global IGS and CORS GPS sites

The site-specific multipath characteristics of 217 Global Positioning System (GPS) sites worldwide were analyzed using the variability of the post-fit phase residuals. Because the GPS satellite constellation returns to the same configuration in a sidereal day (23 h 56 min 4 s), the multipath repeats on that period. However, daily GPS position estimates are usually based on the solar day. When several days of GPS data are processed, this steady change in the orientation of the satellite constellation with respect to the station manifests itself in the form of patterns in the post-fit phase residuals which shift by 3 min 56 s per day. It was found that the mean root mean square of the time-shifted post-fit phase residuals is highly dependent on the GPS antenna type. The conclusions derived from the analysis of the time-shifted post-fit residuals were verified by performing a cross-correlation of the post-fit residuals across many days for selected sites.     

A procedure for testing the assumption of homoscedasticity in least squares residuals: a case study of GPS carrier-phase observations

Due to increased demands on the quality of the results of Global Positioning System (GPS) evaluations, various authors have studied improvements of the stochastic model of GPS carrier-phase observations. These improvements are based on the reasonable assumption that the commonly used stochastic model with independent and homoscedastic (i.e. equal variance) errors is unrealistic. However, this has not been proved rigorously so far. A statistical test procedure based on uncorrelated least–squares residuals, which allows verification of the hypothesis of a heterogeneous variance, is provided. The statistical test procedure is of interest in its own right, and is independent of the practical problem considered. The presented technique is applied to GPS carrier-phase observations. Results show that the variances of the investigated observations are far from homogeneous. It is indicated that the error variances of the presented data increase with decreasing GPS satellite elevation. These results confirm the assumption that the commonly used stochastic model of GPS observations is inadequate and has to be improved.     

Improving the estimation of fractional-cycle biases for ambiguity resolution in precise point positioning

Ambiguity resolution dedicated to a single global positioning system (GPS) station can improve the accuracy of precise point positioning. In this process, the estimation accuracy of the narrow-lane fractional-cycle biases (FCBs), which destroy the integer nature of undifferenced ambiguities, is crucial to the ambiguity-fixed positioning accuracy. In this study, we hence propose the improved narrow-lane FCBs derived from an ambiguity-fixed GPS network solution, rather than the original (i.e. previously proposed) FCBs derived from an ambiguity-float network solution. The improved FCBs outperform the original FCBs by ensuring that the resulting ambiguity-fixed daily positions coincide in nature with the state-of-the-art positions generated by the International GNSS Service (IGS). To verify this improvement, 1?year of GPS measurements from about 350 globally distributed stations were processed. We find that the original FCBs differ more from the improved FCBs when fewer stations are involved in the FCB estimation, especially when the number of stations is less than 20. Moreover, when comparing the ambiguity-fixed daily positions with the IGS weekly positions for 248 stations through a Helmert transformation, for the East component, we find that on 359 days of the year the daily RMS of the transformed residuals based on the improved FCBs is smaller by up to 0.8?mm than those based on the original FCBs, and the mean RMS over the year falls evidently from 2.6 to 2.2?mm. Meanwhile, when using the improved rather than the original FCBs, the RMS of the transformed residuals for the East component of 239 stations (i.e. 96.4% of all 248 stations) is clearly reduced by up to 1.6?mm, especially for stations located within a sparse GPS network. Therefore, we suggest that narrow-lane FCBs should be determined with ambiguity-fixed, rather than ambiguity-float, GPS network solutions.     

结合GPS和GLAS数据生成Dome-A区域DEM

详细阐述了利用GLAS数据和GPS数据生成Dome-A地区DEM的方法。首先进行GLAS数据转化, 便于与GPS数据结合, 提出一种快速搜索GLAS和其光斑(Footprint)覆盖GPS点的算法, 比较GLAS数据和GPS数据发现, 均值差异最大为1.118 m, 最小为0.997 m, 而标准差稳定为5-6 cm, 在进行椭球变换修正之后, 差值最大为0.405 m, 最小为0.284 m;之后利用改进的角度限差法沿测线对GPS数据进行特征点提取, 得到抽稀之后的数据;再利用抽稀之后的GPS数据和处理后的GLAS数据使用克里金插值方法生成研究区DEM。利用1199个GPS点和53个GLAS检验点对最后生成的DEM进行了精度分析, 残差中误差为5 cm, 最大残差绝对值为12 cm。利用原始GPS数据, 原始GPS数据和GLAS数据, 处理后GPS数据利用克立金插值方法分别生成了研究区的DEM, 通过等高线提取分析以及检验点的误差分析, 处理后的GPS数据生成的DEM要优于原始GPS数据的, 证明GPS处理的必要性。     

Wavelet packets based denoising method for measurement domain repeat-time multipath filtering in GPS static high-precision positioning

Repeatable satellite orbits can be used for multipath mitigation in GPS-based deformation monitoring and other high-precision GPS applications that involve continuous observation with static antennas. Multipath signals at a static station repeat when the GPS constellation repeats given the same site environment. Repeat-time multipath filtering techniques need noise reduction methods to remove the white noise in carrier phase measurement residuals in order to retrieve the carrier phase multipath corrections for the next day. We propose a generic and robust three-level wavelet packets based denoising method for repeat-time-based carrier phase multipath filtering in relative positioning; the method does not need tuning to work with different data sets. The proposed denoising method is tested rigorously and compared with two other denoising methods. Three rooftop data sets collected at the University of Nottingham Ningbo China and two data sets collected at three Southern California Integrated GPS Network high-rate stations are used in the performance assessment. Test results of the wavelet packets denoising method are compared with the results of the resistor–capacitor (RC) low-pass filter and the single-level discrete wavelet transform (DWT) denoising method. Multipath mitigation efficiency in carrier phase measurement domain is shown by spectrum analysis of two selected satellites in two data sets. The positioning performance of the repeat-time-based multipath filtering techniques is assessed. The results show that the performance of the three noise reduction techniques is about 1–46 % improvement on positioning accuracy when compared with no multipath filtering. The statistical results show that the wavelet packets based denoising method is always better than the RC filter by 2–4 %, and better than the DWT method by 6–15 %. These results suggest that the proposed wavelet packets based denoising method is better than both the DWT method and the relatively simple RC low-pass filter for noise reduction in multipath filtering. However, the wavelet packets based denoising method is not significantly better than the RC filter.     

GPS技术周年系统性误差的检测与分析

当利用GPS测站坐标残差数据分析研究测站坐标周年非线性变化规律时,GPS技术本身的周年系统性误差是其中重要部分。本文针对GPS技术的周年变化特点利用并置站SLR残差数据对GPS测站残差数据中的部分周年系统性误差进行了检测分析,对于进一步量化GPS周年系统性误差对测站坐标精度以及测站坐标周年非线性变化的影响有一定的借鉴意义。