Many a little makes a mickle: Cumulative land cover changes and traditional land use in the Kyrö reindeer herding district,northern Finland

Traditional land use systems are threatened by land use intensification and resulting land cover transitions in northern areas. This article examines cumulative land cover changes and their impacts on reindeer grazing grounds in the Kyrö reindeer herding district in northern Finland. Land cover transitions were studied using Landsat TM and OLI images and topographic maps. The results showed that the herding district has experienced notable land cover changes during the past decades, and most of these changes were directly related to forestry. The proportion of continuous coniferous forests of the total forest cover declined from 92% to 78% between 1987 and 2013. Approximately one third of the forests outside current conservation areas were disturbed by forest management by 2013, and remaining forests were notably more fragmented than forests within conservation areas. The extent of the road and path networks expanded considerably between 1960s and 2010 as a result of increasing logging and tourism. Accumulation of disturbances gradually results in loss of key resources and declined quality of the landscape mosaic from the reindeer herding perspective, which can pose a serious threat to long-term sustainability of the livelihood. Rapid land cover changes in non-protected areas highlight an increasingly important role of conservation areas in maintaining resources for reindeer husbandry in the face of intensifying land use. Sustainable management of resources outside conservation areas requires careful participatory planning and efficient cumulative impact assessment of different land use activities.     

Trust Matters – Social Capital in Herding Cooperation in Finland

Reindeer herding is a nature-based livelihood of the indigenous Sámi people in northern parts of Europe and Russia. During the last decades, reindeer herding has become a more significant issue in the context of the market economy: the livelihood has transformed toward entrepreneurship, and the subsidies demand growth in the scale of herding. According to the national administration, the market values are highlighted. However, for herders, market economies are only one part of their livelihood. Another important part is their experience of reindeer herding as a way of life; for many reindeer herders trust in their livelihood and the social relations associated with their way of life are of equal or greater importance than economic aspects. In this paper, the role of social trust in the changing process of reindeer herding is discussed. Inherited tacit and cultural knowledge, as a part of social capital, strengthen reindeer herders’ experience of trust.     

Komi reindeer herding: the effects of socialist and post-socialist change on mobility and land use

This paper contributes to the discussion concerning the way in which Soviet state policies have influenced the lives, social organization, economy and culture of a group of indigenous Komi reindeer herders of northern Russia: its main focus is to explain how these policies have changed the herders' patterns of migration and land use. Extensive anthropological fieldwork—to determine current and past herding practices—was carried out and archives were thoroughly investigated to document land use changes in relation to state reindeer herding policies. It was found that compared with those of several decades ago, the migration routes are now much shorter, as the herders have abandoned large areas of winter pastures located in the southernmost part of their herding territory. This "abandonment" phenomenon is endemic amongst reindeer herders generally, throughout the Komi Republic. Whereas the reasons for the abandonment of winter pastures are diverse, they can be attributed mostly to the state sedentarization policy, which has modified the family structures of herders, and the continuing decreases in state subsidies that have changed the balance between state and private ownership of reindeer. Both these factors have greatly contributed to the herders' dependence on visiting towns, where they now own flats, and on selling reindeer products, upon which they are increasingly reliant for financial security.     

Arctic climate change discourse: the contrasting politics of research agendas in the West and Russia

In this paper we explore how Western scientific concepts and attitudes towards indigenous knowledge, as they pertain to resource management and climate change, differ from the prevailing view in modern Russia. Western indigenous leaders representing the Inuit and Saami peoples are actively engaged in the academic and political discourse surrounding climate change, whereas their Russian colleagues tend to focus more on legislation and self-determination, as a post-Soviet legacy. We contribute to the debate with data from the Nenets tundra, showing how different research has employed the three crucial Western research paradigms of climate change, wildlife management and indigenous knowledge on the ground. We suggest that the daily practice of tundra nomadism involves permanent processes of negotiating one's position in a changing environment, which is why "adaptation" is woven into the society, and cosmology as a whole, rather than being separable into distinct "bodies" of knowledge or Western-designed categories. We argue that research agendas should be placed in their proper local and regional context, and temporal framework: for example, by collaborating with herders on the topics of weather instead of climate change, herding skills instead of wildlife management, and ways of engaging with the tundra instead of traditional ecological knowledge.     

深圳社会经济发展与国土资源互动关系研究

基于深圳社会经济与国土资源互动关系,对深圳国土资源开发利用的基本特征、国土资源的动态特性与优劣势转换、"深圳发展模式"与国土资源利用模式进行分析和总结.研究表明,从乡村区域到城市化地域,国土资源的价值与功能、结构与内涵、激励与约束机制处于不断变动中;与农区型国土类型区比较,高度城市化地区的国土资源结构体系、开发利用、发展战略有其迥然不同的模式.     

A Geography of Children's Vulnerability: Gender,Household Resources,and Water‐Related Disease Hazard in Northern Pakistan*

Water‐related diseases continue to pose major threats to children's survival and well‐being in many places in the developing world. This article develops a theoretical perspective on the ways in which children's vulnerability to water‐related disease hazard is produced within the everyday circumstances of livelihood and child care. Central to this analysis is the role that household resources play in mediating or shaping particular microenvironments of health risk. Further, the effects of local geographies of gender on how household resources are accessed and on how child care is structured are examined. Children's vulnerability is evaluated in a community in the District of Gilgit in northern Pakistan, a region presently undergoing tremendous social and economic transformation. The case study highlights household‐level response and adaptation to child health risks associated with diarrheal disease transmission and infection in this mountain environment. The case study draws from ethnographic fieldwork involving qualitative household microstudies and interviewing to elicit mothers' resource and risk‐response strategies in the context of changes in livelihood systems and household dynamics.     

Twenty years of land use and livelihood changes in SE-Niger: Obsolete and short-sighted adaptation to climatic and demographic pressures?

This paper explores the evolution of land use and natural resource management strategies over the past twenty to fifty years in a remote Sahelian region. The empirical example is Karagou village in SE Niger. Building on an in-depth survey from 1992 and a targeted, follow-up analysis of contemporary land use strategies in 2011, the change process is scrutinized.The analysis uses the conceptual lenses of land systems science, human–environmental timelines, and the notion of multiple exposures. Enabling and constraining conditions for local livelihoods in terms of the resource base (landscape, water, and population) are described. Results characterize how land use strategies have developed and how local people opportunistically use different landscape elements such as dune landscapes, valley bottoms (bas-fonds) and oases (cuvettes). Major concerns are rainfall variability, saturation of cropland, and perceived dwindling groundwater resources. It is concluded that the land use and livelihood strategies have remained remarkably stable in the face of the changing socio-ecological fringe conditions, but that this situation may hamper a sustainable transformation.     

西藏食物生产系统的区划研究

运用农牧业经济的指标,结合自然生态因子,运用GIS技术对西藏食物生产系统进行区划。结果分为农区、半农半牧区、牧区和农林牧区四个分区。并详述了4个分区的特点。     

The exploitation of an arid landscape by a pastoral society: the contemporary eastern Badia of Jordan

The paper reconsiders the use of arid landscapes as a resource by pastoral societies in the light of recent socioeconomic developments, using Bedouin livestock herding in the Jordanian Badia as a case study of a pastoral system in transition. The paper argues that in the contemporary Badia context, landscape is exploited by users in a wide variety of ways, and for the acquisition of both tangible and non-tangible resources. The study concludes that the modernization and commercialization of livestock production in the Badia does not necessarily imply a diminishing of ties between herder and land resources, and suggests instead that the process of modernization in livestock production may in fact generate a wider spectrum of options for its exploitation.     

Changing local land systems: Implications of a Chinese rubber plantation in Nambak District,Lao PDR

This paper investigates the direct and cascading land system consequences of a Chinese company's land acquisition for rubber cultivation in northern Laos. Transnational land acquisitions are increasingly acknowledged as an important driver of direct land use conversion with implications for local land‐based livelihoods. The paper presents an empirical case study of the village of Na Nhang Neua in Nambak District, Luang Prabang Province, using a mixed methods approach to investigate the positive and negative implications for household agricultural strategies, income generation and food security. Combining the conceptual lenses of land systems and livelihood approaches, this paper demonstrates how the land use system has changed substantially because of the establishment of the rubber plantation by the company, notably in the linkages between livestock rearing, upland shifting cultivation and lowland paddy rice cultivation. The changes go beyond the immediate competition for land caused by the rubber plantation: a penalty scheme introduced by the rubber company for damage to rubber trees caused by browsing animals has led the villagers to abandon livestock rearing, causing a cascade of negative effects on the entire land use system, especially on soil fertility, rice yields and food production.     

村镇建设类型划分的理论与方法研究——以江苏省为例

村镇地区是多要素组合的地域单元,由于区位条件复杂多样,资源禀赋差异明显,村镇建设具有多元发展路径。基于资源环境承载力视角,构建了“压力-状态-响应”框架下的村镇建设分类指标体系,采用单向优势指标和复合指标相对优势判断相结合的划定方法,综合考虑国家和省级功能区划、协调乡镇周边区域功能并衔接省国土空间发展战略,以乡镇为分析单元,建立了省级村镇建设分类综合方案,并以江苏省为案例进行村镇建设类型划分研究。研究结果发现,江苏省仅有29.61%的乡镇为明显的单一建设类型,村镇建设的综合性发展态势明显;村镇建设类型具有明显的地域差异,苏北地区主要以居住类乡镇和生态类乡镇为主,苏中地区种植类乡镇和养殖类乡镇居多,苏南地区则集聚了商旅类和工业类乡镇。以此为基础提出不同村镇建设类型的资源环境承载力提升策略。     

A Geography of Children's Vulnerability: Gender,Household Resources,and Water-Related Disease Hazard in Northern Pakistan

Abstract

Water-related diseases continue to pose major threats to children's survival and well-being in many places in the developing world. This article develops a theoretical perspective on the ways in which children's vulnerability to water-related disease hazard is produced within the everyday circumstances of livelihood and child care. Central to this analysis is the role that household resources play in mediating or shaping particular microenvironments of health risk. Further, the effects of local geographies of gender on how household resources are accessed and on how child care is structured are examined. Children's vulnerability is evaluated in a community in the District of Gilgit in northern Pakistan, a region presently undergoing tremendous social and economic transformation. The case study highlights household-level response and adaptation to child health risks associated with diarrheal disease transmission and infection in this mountain environment. The case study draws from ethnographic fieldwork involving qualitative household microstudies and interviewing to elicit mothers' resource and risk-response strategies in the context of changes in livelihood systems and household dynamics.

     

论土地整治与乡村振兴

乡村振兴的核心目的是系统构建人口、土地、产业等多种发展要素的耦合格局。土地整治在乡村振兴过程中肩负着为人口集聚、产业发展提供资源支撑的基础性作用。本文基于影响乡村发展的关键要素阐释了新时代乡村振兴和土地整治的内涵及其互馈关系,剖析了乡村振兴背景下土地整治的区域实施路径。最后,就未来乡村振兴视角下土地整治的方向进行了展望与讨论。结论如下：① 乡村振兴的内涵在于为应对乡村内部要素的流失与衰退,通过经济、政治及文化建设等手段激发内部动力和吸纳外部资源来重新组合、优化配置和高效利用乡村人口、土地和产业等发展要素,从而优化要素结构、提升地域功能、重塑乡村形态,实现乡村地域经济、社会及生态的全面复兴和城乡融合发展的新格局;② 乡村振兴视角下土地整治要激活乡村人口、土地和产业等关键发展要素,统筹物质空间振兴与精神内核提升;③ 开展农村土地整治要与区域自然本底条件和社会经济发展阶段相适应,按照分区统筹、分类施策的原则在国土空间开发格局的框架下因地制宜地采取相应的模式与路径;④ 未来有必要重塑土地整治的价值取向,在统一空间规划体系下统筹土地整治规划与乡村振兴规划,大力发展土地整治与多功能农业相结合的新模式。     

A reindeer herder's perspective on caribou, weather and socio-economic change on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska

Non-climate variables shape vulnerability and adaptive capacity to climate change. Here, we describe how recent environmental and socio-economic developments have transformed reindeer herding and perceptions of weather on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska. The reindeer industry has shrunk considerably since the early 1990s, when the winter range of the Western Arctic Caribou Herd expanded, and over 17 000 reindeer mixed with migrating caribou and left the region. Socio-economic and environmental repercussions make the continuation of herding tenuous, and erode the ability of herders to cope with weather variability, among other perturbations. We present a case study of one herder's annual cycle, and juxtapose physical drivers of herding activities, including weather-station and herder observations of local weather variability, with socio-economic factors. There is an increased urgency to access and monitor reindeer with caribou present, but herding plans are constrained by lower economic returns and the need to spend more time in non-herding jobs. Although weather is a greater concern now for immediate herd access, standard weather data are largely irrelevant to the mechanics of herding, whereas variables pertaining to the timing of biotic events (e.g., synchrony of spring break-up and calving) and visibility are attributed to lost herding opportunities. Short-term responses to weather conditions stem from more long-term vulnerability associated with caribou presence, reduced herd size, difficulties affording snowmobile maintenance or crew assistance, and dwindling market opportunities. We emphasize the environmental and socio-economic interactions that affect vulnerability and adaptive capacity for modern herding.     

Need and opportunity for a North American caribou knowledge cooperative

The importance of migratory caribou ( Rangifer tarandus ) to northerners, the increasing pressure to extract non-living resources, and predicted global climate change have led researchers, managers and resource users alike to focus on how to improve our knowledge of this unique northern ungulate. Unprecedented threats to caribou sustainability, along with the increasingly acknowledged value of indigenous hunters'contribution to caribou research, pose the additional challenge to innovate research methods that accommodate differing cultural perspectives and facilitate communication among groups. This paper surveys the state of scientific knowledge of the eleven major northern mainland herds of North America. We recommend an approach to improve our working knowledge of barren-ground caribou in order to assess better future impacts. The transfer of knowledge gained from years of research and indigenous experience on many aspects of caribou ecology should be evaluated and, where applicable, transferred to herds with more modest databases. The establishment of a North American Caribou Monitoring and Assessment System, based on a synthesis of local knowledge and research-based science, is recommended as a tool for improved communication and collective learning.     

Free satellite imagery and digital elevation model analyses enabling natural resource management in the developing world: Case studies from Eastern Indonesia

Decentralization of governance and natural resource management is an ongoing process in many parts of Africa and Asia. Natural resource management requires spatial land resource data for planning. However, currently the financial and human capacity for natural resource mapping, monitoring and modelling remains low in local governments. In this context, this paper explores how new opportunities provided by the increasing availability of free satellite imagery, digital elevation data and open source spatial analysis software, can be applied by local government and NGOs to conduct sophisticated natural resource mapping and modelling in ways that meet their needs and incorporates local knowledge. Reported are cases of a local government using free geospatial data and GIS software to improve evidence‐based natural resource management in the developing world with a focus on raster data applications for satellite image analysis and terrain modelling. It is argued that, through removing barriers to uptake, such applications provide a means of decentralizing landscape analysis skills to improve local natural resource management. This hypothesis is supported through examples of a local government applying these tools in eastern Indonesia, and within this context barriers to wider adoption are explored.     

从本土到全球网络化的人地关系思维范式转型

早期地理学关于人地关系的研究多基于本土思维,秉持“一方水土养育一方人”的理念。在严重依赖自然资源的传统农业社会,这一理念及其指导下的区域地理研究和区域管理实践,对于促进人与自然的协调发展起到积极作用。随着系统开放程度的增加,规模不等、层级不同的地域系统形成了一个相互依赖、相互耦合的地理网络。每个地域都是这个网络上的节点,地域问题的产生与解决与网络上其他节点有密切关联、与地域系统内外因素紧密相关,地域外因素有时甚至起主导作用。虚拟水、生态足迹、贸易隐含碳排放、资源纽带关系及人地关系远程耦合等概念和方法的提出,标志着人地关系研究范式从本土思维向全球网络化思维转型。依照新的理念和研究范式,传统的本土思维范式及建立在此范式上的相关研究主题（如区域承载力）应该受到重新审视。     

环保组织的社区领域建构策略及其环境治理影响

现有的环境政治文献多关注环境治理中多元主体之间的互动和策略,尤其是国家与环保组织之间的权力关系,但对权力在空间上的领域特征及其实践影响探讨不足。通过对一个国际环保组织乡村水资源保育项目的田野观察,分析了该组织在近十年的社区领域建构策略演化,并探讨动态的领域化过程如何影响环境治理的形式、范围和效果。研究发现：（1）环保组织通过与不同层级政府建立差异化联系,能够在农村社区中建构相对独立的社会领域,自主开展环保活动,但与农村社区之间的隔离也限制了环保项目进一步发展的空间;（2）环保组织通过融入本土社会关系网络的策略调整,重新建构了更具流动性、融合性的社会领域,为项目发展提供了新的动力;（3）面对长期的资源挑战,环保组织通过培育本土组织来保持自身在社区“飞地”的长期影响,但“代理人”在融合后的新领域空间内却难以再维持独立性和专业性,从而制约了公众参与环保的范围和效果。通过动态的领域化过程及其影响,解释了环境治理和环保组织发展的规律,为认识国家-环保组织-社区之间的关系提供了新视角。     

基于资源效率的国土空间布局及支撑体系框架

形成国土空间开发保护新格局是生态文明建设的首要任务之一,关键在于城镇、农业和生态空间的合理配置,重点是以较小的资源损耗支撑社会经济可持续发展,而深入理解资源效率的作用成效是科学优化国土空间布局的前提。本文框架以城镇利用、农业生产和生态转换效率测算为逻辑起点,构建以上述效率为核心的国土空间开发保护情景方案和评价指标体系,引入体现决策偏好差异模型评价国土空间发展潜力,定量刻画不同情景方案下的国土空间布局蓝图,最后通过综合性分析范式对不同决策导向的国土空间政策工具（布局蓝图）进行模拟和优选。本文通过揭示资源效率对国土空间开发保护的作用成效,提炼国土空间布局蓝图定量刻画的具体规律,构建权衡多方利弊的全局优化策略,为国家生态文明建设和自然资源统筹管理提供理论参考。