Problems in the determination of sensible heat flux over snow

Measurements, as well as the majority of present–day GCM simulations, indicate an increase in air temperature, especially for polar regions. In order to improve the quality of GCM predictions for these regions, it is necessary to achieve good parameterization of the energy exchange, especially of the sensible heat flux between atmosphere and snow, because the high latitudes are snow–covered for as many as nine months. During the snowmelt periods in 1995 and 1998, eddy–covariance and profile measurements of wind speed and air temperature were carried out in the Kärkevagge, a valley in the Abisko Mountains in Swedish Lapland. Sensible heat flux was calculated by the profile and bulk method and compared to the directly measured sensible heat flux. The profile and the bulk method gave reliable results as long as all data were measured within the surface layer and radiation errors for air–temperature data were small. The bulk method yielded better results than the profile method in periods with high values of upwelling shortwave radiation. All measurements conducted outside the surface layer, which was frequently shallow in 1998, were unusable for the profile method. Similarly, the eddy–covariance method produced unreliable results if the instrument was operating outside the surface layer. In such a case, however, the bulk method produced at least a minimal estimate for the sensible heat flux. None of the methods yielded reasonable results for all meteorological conditions. This aspect should be noted when seeking new methods to improve the calculation of sensible heat flux in GCMs.     

Seasonal variations of the near surfacelayer parameters over the Antarctic ice sheet in Princess Elizabeth Land,East Antarctica

Analysis of sensible heat flux(Qh),latent heat flux(Qe),Richardson number(Ri),bulk transport coefficient(Cd) and katabatic winds are presented by using the meteorological data in the near surface layer from an automatic weather station(AWS) in Princess Elizabeth Land,East Antarctica ice sheet and the data of corresponding period at Zhongshan station in 2002.It shows that annual mean air temperature at LGB69 is-25.6°C,which is 16.4°C lower than that at Zhongshan,where the elevation is lower and located on the coast.The temperature lapse rate is about 1.0°C/110 m for the initial from coast to inland.The turbulence heat flux at LGB69 displays obvious seasonal variations with the average sensible heat flux-17.9 W/m2 and latent heat flux-0.9 W/m2.The intensity(Qh+Qe) of coolling source is-18.8 W/m2 meaning the snow surface layer obtains heat from atmosphere.The near surface atmosphere is near-neutral stratified with bulk transport coefficients(Cd) around 2.8×10-3,and it is near constant when the wind speed higher than 8 m/s.The speed and the frequency of easterly Katabatic winds at LGB69 were higher than that at Zhongshan Station.     

南极中山站附近冰盖近地面层湍流参数的观测研究

利用2007/2008年中国第24次南极考察队在南极中山站附近冰盖上观测试验获得的湍流脉动及相关资料,对原始资料通过坐标旋转订正后,应用涡动相关法计算分析了冰盖近地面层的湍流强度(I)、稳定度参数(z/L)、摩擦速度(u*)、拖曳系数(Cd)、地表粗糙度(z0)及动量通量(τ)和感热通量(H),并与空气动力学方法的计算结果进行对比。结果表明,Louis方案能够较好地模拟近地面层湍流通量;在平均状态下,全天雪面以感热形式从大气获得净的能量;近中性层结下地表粗糙度z0为4.54×10-4m,拖曳系数Cd=1.7×10-3,在非中性条件下,稳定度越小Cd越大,反之,则稳定度越大Cd越小。     

THE STUDY ON LATENT AND SENSIBLE HEAT FLUX OVER MIRE IN THE SANJIANG PLAIN

Energy exchange is one of the most importantprocesses in wetland ecosystems,because it has agreat influence on temperature,water transport,plantgrowth,productivityetc.(Dennison and Berry,1989).On small scales,understanding of surface en-ergy exchange is n…     

Observations of dry season surface energy exchanges over a desert clay pan,Queensland, Australia

Clay pans (playas) are common landforms of semi-arid and arid desert regions ranging in size from 1 to 2 km² to greater than 10,000 km². The first observations of surface energy exchanges over a clay pan in central Australia using the eddy covariance method are presented. Measurements were obtained in the late dry season (September) before the onset of the Australian summer monsoon under clear skies and weak synoptic winds for five consecutive days. Sensible heat flux displayed an upward trend over the observation period reaching a peak of approximately 50% of net radiation over the period, while latent heat flux declined as the clay pan became dryer. Ground heat flux was similar in magnitude to sensible heat flux reaching maximum values near noon, approximately 2 h before daily maximum sensible heat flux. Net radiation and ground heat flux both reached minimum values 1–2 h after sunset and then gradually increased towards sunrise, while sensible and latent heat flux remained close to zero. Bowen Ratio values increased from 4.08 to 6.12 over the study period as the surface dried. Results highlight clay pans as significant sources of sensible heat in desert landscapes.     

巴丹吉林沙漠高大沙山近地层温湿廓线与能量交换特征

利用兰州大学冰川与沙漠研究中心科学观测实验站2015—2016年获得的高大沙山微气象数据,分析了巴丹吉林沙漠温湿廓线结构、土壤分层温度、辐射通量等特征,利用组合法和一维热传导方程分别计算了湍流通量及土壤热通量。结果表明：（1）近地层大气自下而上呈现近似等温或逆温分布,冬季逆温层厚度大于夏季。（2）初次观测到逆湿现象,比湿夏季最大,冬季最小,秋季和春季次之,全年平均约为4.2 g·kg^-1,高于塔克拉玛干沙漠。（3）土壤热通量在2月底至5月初振幅较大;感热通量具有显著的平均日变化特征,潜热通量平均日变化平稳,以0 W·m^-2为中心上下波动。能量交换以感热通量为主,陆-气温度差异是沙山感热通量变化的主要影响和控制因子。     

青藏高原西部的地面热源强度及地面热量平衡

以1997年11月至1998年10月青藏高原西部改则和狮泉河地区自动气象站(AWS)连续观测的近地层梯度资料,采用廓线-通量法计算出观测期逐日的总体输送系数,进而用总体公式得出两站逐日的地面感热和潜热通量。结果表明:在此观测期内青藏高原西部不论冬夏地面皆为热源,地面热源强度具有明显的季节变化,两站地面热源强度的年平均值分别为82.5W/m²和68.2W/m²。结合辐射和土壤热通量观测资料揭示了两站的地面热量平衡状况,用地面热量平衡方程对以上结果进行了闭合误差检验。     

陇中黄土高原垂直感热平流输送对LAS和EC观测感热通量差异的影响

利用"黄土高原陆面过程试验研究(LOPEX)"2010年6月定西站的陆面过程综合观测资料,以造成大孔径闪烁仪(LAS)和涡动相关仪(EC)测量感热通量的差异为切入点,从中尺度垂直感热平流输送过程入手,将垂直感热平流输送的贡献作为地表有效能量的一部分引入EC直接观测的感热通量,对比引入前后LAS和EC测量感热通量的差异大小.结果表明:黄土高原定西观测站近地层大气垂直方向主要表现为向上运动,峰值达到0.074 m·s^-1,为垂直感热平流输送提供了必要的动力条件.尤其该地区处在半干旱区,地表受太阳辐射加热比较显著,近地层温度梯度最大可达0.39 K·m^-1,为产生垂直感热平流提供了能量基础.加入垂直感热平流输送的贡献后,EC地表能量不闭合度的日均值由直接观测的0.30缩小到0.24.修正后,LAS和EC测量的感热通量拟合的线性趋势系数由直接观测时的1.258缩小到1.186,两者差异得以缩小.     

1987—1988年夏季长城站地区的热力和动力特征

本文利用1987～1988年夏季我国首次南极长城站边界层气象观测实验资料,运用近地层大气通量的平均廓线理论计算方法,分析了该地区夏季的热状况特征,并与南极内陆的瑞穗站及我国青藏高原等地区的热状况进行了初步比较。在夏季,长城站地面相对于大气而言,仍为热源,地面主要以潜热输送的方式加热大气。夏季长城站的热状况特征与我国青藏高原东部地区进入雨季后的情况相近。     

绿洲农田作物的显热和潜热输送

本文根据波文比－能量平衡法，利用观测资料计算了荒漠－绿洲交界处绿洲农田作物（棉花、水稻）的显热和潜热，并进行了分析和比较。     

黄土高原半干旱草地降水前后土壤的温、湿度及热力特征

本文利用兰州大学半干旱气候与环境观测站(简称SACOL站）陆面过程综合观测资料,分析了强降水前后榆中黄土高原半干旱草地土壤温、湿特征的差异,讨论了水分状况对土壤热力参数及地表能量分配的影响。结果表明:水分胁迫条件下,黄土高原半干旱草地土壤在10 cm深度存在一个湿层;强降水过程可使土壤湿度受影响范围接近40 cm深度。水分胁迫条件下,感热通量是黄土高原半干旱草地生态系统能量分配过程中净辐射的最大消耗项;无水分胁迫条件下,潜热通量是能量平衡系统中净辐射分量的最大消耗项。降水改变了土壤湿度并使得土壤热传导率发生变化,土壤热传导系数和土壤热容量随土壤湿度增加而增大。     

城市不同下垫面的能量平衡及温度差异模拟

城市能量平衡是研究城市热岛效应的物理基础。利用北京市教学植物园2010年的实测数据,设置不同类型下垫面(植被覆盖类型:林地、草地和不透水层覆盖类型:道路、房屋),利用局地尺度城市气象参数化方案模拟并分析了相同气象条件和净辐射通量输入下,不同类型下垫面的显热、潜热通量及蒸散降温效应的差异。结果显示:(1)不同类型下垫面的各能量支出项有明显差异,植被覆盖区域和不透水层覆盖区域的波文比年均值分别为0.28和4.60,且在植被生长季差异较大;(2)城市扩展过程中道路、房屋替换林地、草地的过程,也是显热增加而潜热减少的过程。植被层向不透水层转换的过程中,显热通量年均增加32.74W/m²,潜热通量减少38.87W/m²,储热通量增加7.95W/m²;(3)理论上,植被蒸散的年降温效应使单位面积植被覆盖区域的气温比不透水层区域可低2.63℃。     

金塔绿洲主要特征量的数值模拟

 采用RAMS模式模拟了金塔绿洲非均匀地表的空气温度、湿度、风速、地表能量。结果表明,绿洲地表温度明显比周围戈壁和沙漠低,空气湿度明显比周围戈壁和沙漠大,近地层感热通量最大值约为戈壁和沙漠的1/3,近底层潜热通量比戈壁和沙漠大20倍左右。模拟结果与观测值的对比表明,RAMS对绿洲、戈壁和沙漠不同下垫面近地面温度、湿度、感热通量和潜热通量的模拟与实测基本一致。由于湍流的随机性,风速的模拟偏差比较大,这种偏差有一多半是由于非线性偏差造成的。     

绿洲荒漠交界处波文比能量平衡法适用性的气候学分析

对广泛使用的计算蒸散和显热通量的气候学方法－波文比能量平衡法在绿洲荒漠交界处的适用性从气候学角度进行分析。结果表明,波文化－能量平衡法在干旱区绿洲的平衡层内是适用的,在平衡层外及荒漠上空却失效。因而,应用波文比能量平衡法估算绿洲上的蒸发与显热时,测点的位置是至关重要的。     

天山季节性积雪的能量平衡研究和融雪速率模拟

本文采用能量平衡法模拟计算中国西部天山山地季节性积雪的融雪速率。结果表明:在融雪期,净辐射和感热通量分别占融雪能量输入的75.3%和22.6%;用于融雪和雪面蒸发所消耗的能量分别占吸收能量的95.1%和4.9%。用能量平衡法所计算的融雪速率和实测的雪面数据吻合的较好,表明用能量平衡法估算天山山地季节性积雪的融雪速率是可行的。     

土地利用类型转换对地表能量平衡和气候的影响——基于SiB2模型的模拟结果

利用SiB2 模型对中国东北地区农田、草地和森林3 种土地利用类型的地表能量平衡过程展开研究,分析不同土地利用类型对生物地球物理参数（反照率和粗糙度）、能量平衡（净辐射、潜热和显热）和气候（冠层温度）的影响。结果表明：①模型模拟的地表能量平衡与实测数据的年变化动态相似（R²>0.42）,差值保持在±30 W/m²,温度在±4 ℃。②利用相同气象数据模拟不同土地利用类型通过生物地球物理过程对地表能量平衡和气候的影响,发现森林吸收的净辐射最高且主要用于潜热分配,农田的净辐射最低且主要用于显热分配,草地净辐射和能量分配居中。③生态系统获得的净辐射主要受反照率的影响,净辐射分配受叶面积指数的调节。④冠层温度（℃）受反照率和净辐射在潜热和显热间分配的相对重要性的影响：年平均值为森林（7.7）>农田（7.64）>草地（6.67）。⑤降水对模拟结果有显著影响,是森林模拟差异的主要原因。在不同土地利用类型中,降水增加土壤水分,净辐射更多分配到潜热,较少分配到显热,降低冠层温度。     

ERA40中北半球高纬地区冬季气候变化和冰-气相互作用特征分析

利用欧洲中期天气预报中心(ECMWF)再分析资料(ERA40)分析了最近几十年冬季北半球高纬地区的气候变化和冰-气相互作用特征。在全球增暖背景下,冬季北半球高纬地区增温幅度更大,但温度变化明显具有区域性特点。20世纪70年代末期开始,格陵兰海、巴伦支海及欧亚大陆大部分区域和北美大陆部分区域在增暖,而拉布拉多海、格陵兰和白令海峡区域却变冷。与此对应,中央北极区及气候冰岛低压中心海平面气压在降低,而再往南区域海平面气压在升高。从20世纪70年代开始,格陵兰海和巴伦支海给大气的感热通量和潜热通量增多,这说明由于气温增加,使得海冰密集度减小,海冰对海气感热通量和潜热通量交换的隔离层作用减小,通量交换大大增加。而在挪威海非海冰区,由于气温增加,海气温差减小,海洋给大气的感热通量和潜热通量减少。在拉布拉多海,由于气温降低,海气温差增大,使得海洋给大气的感热通量和潜热通量增加,有利于拉布拉多海海冰的增多。海平面气压、海冰密集度及表面感热通量和潜热通量之和对大气表面温度 EOF 展开第一模时间系数的线性回归结果均与各自的EOF 展开第一模空间分布特征接近。     

塔克拉玛干沙漠夏季晴空对流边界层大涡模拟

为了探索塔克拉玛干沙漠夏季晴空对流边界层湍流结构和热对流运动规律,利用沙漠腹地探空及地表通量观测资料,开展了晴空对流边界层的大涡模拟研究。结果表明：（1）沙漠夏季晴空条件下,对流边界层湍能主要由地表热力浮力对流产生,机械剪切对边界层湍能的贡献较小,小尺度湍涡对湍能的耗散随高度呈减弱趋势,边界层湍能变化呈现间歇性特点。（2）沙漠夏季晴空边界层中存在着有组织的热对流泡现象,热泡最大上升速度可超过4.0 m·s^-1;沙漠热对流运动一般呈羽状和网状分布特征,在上升运动区周围伴随有大片的下沉辐散区域。（3）地表感热和逆温层顶盖强度是控制和影响沙漠对流边界层发展的两个重要因素,感热增大,对流边界层变暖且高度升高;感热减小,对流边界层变冷且高度降低。在感热不变的条件下,逆温层顶盖强度越强,越不利于对流边界层发展,反之则相反。     

沙漠腹地人工绿地地表能量交换特征

运用涡度相关法开路系统对塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地人工灌溉绿地生长季地表能量交换特征以及与环境因子的关系进行测定分析。结果表明：在典型晴天条件下,无论是沙漠区还是沙漠腹地灌溉绿地,白天感热通量在净辐射通量的分配中所占的份额最大,潜热交换仅占很小的比例,人工绿地感热通量和潜热通量的峰值为230.54 W/m²和88.5 W/m²,沙漠区为220 W/m²和17.55 W/m²,沙漠腹地人工灌溉造林后潜热交换明显增加。沙漠腹地造林后,绿地波文比日变幅和日均波文比均减小,绿地日均波文比为沙漠区的15%,人工绿地的营建促使了局地气候的改变。绿地地表能量交换受气象因子和下垫面条件的影响和制约,按相关系数的高低,环境因子对感热、潜热通量的影响依次为：Rn>△Ta>△TS>v>TS,沙漠区人工造林后地表能量交换与多个环境因子有着密切的关系。这些研究结果将加深我们对沙漠地区人工灌溉造林地近地层能量交换的认识。     

城市地表热通量遥感反演及与土地类型的关系(英文)

Using ASTER(Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiome-ter) infrared remote sensing data we inversed the parameters of urban surface heat fluxes applying the PCACA model and theoretical position algorithm,and then we analyzed the in-fluence of different land use types on the surface heat fluxes and energy balance.In this study,Kumagaya,a city in Saitama Prefecture,Japan,was selected as the experimental area.The result shows that the PCACA model is feasible for the surface heat fluxes estimation in urban areas because this model requires less parameters in the procedure of heat fluxes estimation in urban areas with complicated surface structure and can decrease the uncertainty.And we found that different land-use types have indicated the height heterogeneity on the surface heat fluxes significantly.The magnitudes of Bowen ratio in descending order are industrial,residential,transportation,institutional,dry farmland,green space,and water body.Under the same meteorological condition,there are distinct characteristics and regional differences in Bowen ratios among different surface covers,indicating higher sensible heat flux and lower latent heat flux in the urban construction land,while lower sensible heat flux and higher latent heat flux in the vegetation-covered area,the outskirt of the urban area.The increase of urban impervious surface area caused by the urban sprawl can enlarge the sensible heat flux and the Bowen ratio,so that it causes the increasing of urban surface temperature and air tem-perature,which is the mechanism of the so-called heat island effect.