基于自然区块的城市热环境空间分异性研究

通过有效解决建设用地子类划分,实现定量评价城市热环境的空间分异性,对改善城市生态环境、实现城市化的健康发展具有重要的意义和科学价值。论文以广州市为例,参考自然城市的概念,基于5类兴趣点(Point Of Interest,POI)开放数据,结合城市建设用地分类标准,构建5类自然区块;在Landsat 8遥感影像地表温度反演的基础上,计算分析自然区块下地表热场等级分布格局、热场平均值及热环境足迹范围,以对城市热环境空间分异性进行评价。研究表明：① 自然区块的构建,能准确地反映各类POI数据空间分布情况,能够实现对建设用地子类型的划分;② 5类自然区块内部地表热场等级均以高温像元为主,但等级分布具有显著差异。同时,自然区块的热场平均值由高到低的排序为：工业区块>商业服务业区块>交通与道路区块>居住区块>公共管理与服务区块;③ 自然区块形成的高温集聚区,存在热量扩散现象,实际影响范围大于其物理边界,5类自然区块的热环境足迹范围具有分异性。热环境足迹影响范围由大到小排序为：工业区块>商业服务业区块>居住区块>道路与交通区块>公共管理与服务区块。研究结果可为微观尺度上分析城市热环境、改善城市生态环境、实现城市化的健康发展提供科学依据。     

Erosion and the age dependence of continental heat flow

Summary. Erosion of continental crust has two effects on surface heat flow: a decrease due to the removal of heat-producing elements, and an increase due to the movement of hot rock towards the surface. In an orogenic belt, where erosion may remove tens of kilometres of material, these effects are important over time-spans comparable with the life of the belt as an elevated region.
An expression is derived which relates surface heat flow to time, heat flow through the deep lithosphere, the distribution of heat sources and the amount and time constant of erosion. The variability of crustal processes permits wide ranges of values for these parameters and geologically reasonable parametral combinations can readily be found which satisfy the surface heat flow observations. These combinations can account for the long time-scale of surface heat flow decay, and the influence of erosion on 'reduced' heat flow has important consequences. This approach predicts a relationship between reduced heat flow and age which is close to that observed, and a linear relation between surface heat flow and reduced heat flow similar to that reported by Pollack & Chapman. The intercept on q ₀– A ₀ plots (the reduced heat flow) has a physical meaning which changes with time and should not be interpreted as, for example, the heat flux across the Moho.
We conclude that an important part of the observed variation of surface heat flow with age may be explained by the effects of erosion and the variability of crustal processes. In its range of greatest variation surface heat flow mainly reflects these crustal processes and should not be used to infer directly the thermal development of the subcrustal lithosphere.     

Speculations on the Thermal and Tectonic History of the Earth

Summary. The connection between the Earth's thermal history and convection in the mantle is exploited to elucidate the early evolution of the Earth. It appears probable that convection extending over almost all of the mantle has dominated vertical heat transport throughout the whole of the Earth's history. Only in boundary layers at the surface and at a depth of 650–700 km is conduction likely to be important. The resulting evolution appears to be consistent with geological observations on early Precambrian rocks.
Various arguments are put forward in favour of two horizontal scales of convective flow in the mantle at depths less than 650 km. The large scale flow is related to the motion of major plates, and must be ordered over distances of more than 5000 km. Its evolution and energetics are discussed and there are no obvious problems in maintaining the proposed convective motions. Small scale flow with an extent of the order of 500 km appears necessary both to explain the heat flow through older parts of the Earth's surface and to reconcile the geophysical observations with the results of numerical experiments. Though the existence of the small scale flow is at present speculative, various tests of its presence are proposed.     

陆面过程模型CoLM与BATS1e的模拟精度比较——以东北玉米农田为例

利用2008年锦州玉米农田生态系统野外观测站资料对CoLM与BATS1e模型模拟能力进行定量评价。比较发现： 两模型对净辐射和表层土壤温度的模拟精度都较高且差异不大,CoLM模型对感热、潜热、土壤热通量、次表层土壤温度模拟能力都不同程度高于BATS1e模型,模拟值对实测值解释能力分别偏高3%、22%、1%、10%,NS (Nash-sutcliffe效率系数)分别偏高1.042、0.266、0.023、0.138。从各月情况看,两模型在7月对感热、潜热模拟能力都较高,而在其它月份CoLM模型模拟精度明显高于BATS1e模型,土壤热通量和次表层土壤温度在5~8月前者模拟精度高于后者。由于CoLM模型对潜热更高精度的模拟可证明其对表层土壤湿度模拟精度高于BATS1e模型。     

Geophysical surveys on the East Pacific Rise — Galapagos Rise system

Summary. The East Pacific Rise at 12–15° S is topographically smooth with a crestal horst or linear volcanic peak marking the present axis of spreading. The Galapagos Rise at 14–17° S is topographically rough with a possible central graben marking the extinct spreading axis. The seafloor spreading magnetic anomalies on the East Pacific Rise are of low amplitude, but fracture-zone anomalies at 13–14° S have amplitudes of up to 1250 nT. Anomalies of this amplitude at the magnetic equator must be formed within the fracture zone by some combination of block reversal boundaries, anomalously-high magnetic intensities, and/or anomalously-large thicknesses of the magnetic layers within the fracture zone. Magnetization and major-element chemical analyses of basalts dredged from four locales along the fracture zone indicate that the large magnetic-anomaly amplitudes are caused by the high iron and titanium content of these ferrobasalts. The magnetic-anomaly profiles from the Galapagos Rise and its fracture-zone system are of normal amplitude and are extremely difficult to correlate internally or with the geomagnetic timescale.
Eighty-one heat-flow measurements indicate that the values measured are controlled by sediment thickness. Where the thickness of the sediment blanket is greater than 100 m, high heat flow is measured and possibly is representative of the total heat transfer at the seafloor. Where the sediment thickness is less than 100 m, seawater circulation in the oceanic crust is thought to remove most of the heat convectively; thus causing low conductive heat-flow values to be measured by the usual heat-flow apparatus. The heat loss by convective processes is probably a function also of topographic roughness and sediment permeability.     

Terrestrial Heat Flow and Heat Generation in South-west England

Three heat flow values for south-west England are presented. Two of the sites, Geevor and South Crofty, are operating tin mines on the northern contacts of the Land's End and Carnmenellis Granites, respectively, while the third, Wilsey Down, is a stratigraphical borehole 5 km north of the Bodmin Moor Granite. After applying topographic corrections values of 128·6 mW m^-2 (3·07 μ cal cm^-2 s^-1) for Geevor, 128·9 mW m^-2 (3·08 (A cal cm^-2 s^-1) for South Crofty and 67·3 mW cm^-2 (1·61 cal cm^-2 s^-1) for Wilsey Down, were determined. The value at Wilsey Down is shown to be consistent with that for an environment in which the Hercynian orogeny was the last significant thermal event. An additional heat source term must clearly be involved at Geevor and South Crofty to account for the unusually high values at these sites. Radiogenic heat production has been determined on granites from these sites and in spite of the fact that it is high it does not fully account for the measured heat flow. A compilation of underground temperature measurements made in the nineteenth century suggests that high heat flow is a general feature of the mineralized belt. At least part of this can be explained in terms of hot spring activity recorded widely throughout the area but the ultimate cause remains to be evaluated.     

A New Model for Heat Flow in Extensional Basins: Estimating Radiogenic Heat Production

Radiogenic heat production (RHP) represents a significant fraction of surface heat flow, both on cratons and in sedimentary basins. RHP within continental crust—especially the upper crust—is high. RHP at any depth within the crust can be estimated as a function of crustal age. Mantle RHP, in contrast, is always low, contributing at most 1 to 2 mW/m² to total heat flow. Radiogenic heat from any noncrystalline basement that may be present also contributes to total heat flow. RHP from metamorphic rocks is similar to or slightly lower than that from their precursor sedimentary rocks. When extension of the lithosphere occurs—as for example during rifting—the radiogenic contribution of each layer of the lithosphere and noncrystalline basement diminishes in direct proportion to the degree of extension of that layer. Lithospheric RHP today is somewhat less than in the distant past, as a result of radioactive decay. In modeling, RHP can be varied through time by considering the half lives of uranium, thorium, and potassium, and the proportional contribution of each of those elements to total RHP from basement. RHP from sedimentary rocks ranges from low for most evaporites to high for some shales, especially those rich in organic matter. The contribution to total heat flow of radiogenic heat from sediments depends strongly on total sediment thickness, and thus differs through time as subsidence and basin filling occur. RHP can be high for thick clastic sections. RHP in sediments can be calculated using ordinary or spectral gamma-ray logs, or it can be estimated from the lithology.     

Orogenic volcanism caused by thermal runaways?

Summary. Quartz eclogite as source rock seems capable of explaining the chemistry of calc-alkaline volcanics. This model requires partial melting of quartz eclogite in the depth range 100–200 km. Shear heating of the subducting crust is one of the most debated models. The problem may be treated with two different boundary conditions: constant strain rate or constant shear stress. In the former case an increase in temperature tends to reduce the heat production thus stabilizing the shear flow; the result is a moderate increase in temperature which will remain constant during flow. The latter case may lead to a thermal feedback instability and thus temperature and strain rate may suddenly grow to very high values. This phenomenon is termed a runaway and will be discussed in this paper using an adiabatic approximation. It is shown that for a runaway to occur the local energy density must amount to a common value independent of the rheology. In contrast to the constant strain rate case, shear heating is negligible until just before the instability occurs. When the melting point is reached shear stress will break down but the stored local energy will be set free and supply the latent heat of melting. The possibility of a runaway occurring is strongly dependent on the ambient temperature. In subduction shear zones neither shear stress nor strain rate are likely to be constant throughout, but if the former is constant or changes little on a 1–10 km scale a runaway is liable to occur at a depth of around 150 km thus possibly being the cause of calcalkaline volcanism.     

Landslides and relict ice margin landforms in Adventdalen, central Spitsbergen, Svalbard

Two characteristic landforms, landslide blocks and drainage channels, were investigated in Adventdalen, central Spitsbergen. The landslides in the middle reaches of Adventdalen comprise large-scale bedrock slumps which form a hummocky surface on the south slope of Arctowskifjellet. The fourteen recognized landslide blocks are divided into upper and lower sections, according to altitude. The drainage channels consist of tributary rivers to Adventelva which flow in two distinct directions, either parallel with or oblique to the direction of the main river. Glacial deposits were found to cover the ridges between these tributary channels. The upper and lower landslide divisions may indicate former positions of the ice surface, and the channels appear to have originated during the existence of lateral moraine ridges with high ice content. These geomorphological findings have allowed reconstruction of former ice marginal positions, and they strongly suggest the existence of stagnant ice or minor re-advance phases during the course of deglaciation in Adventdalen.     

The effects of sedimentation and compaction on oceanic heat flow

Summary. The estimation of environmental effects forms an important part of the interpretation of oceanic heat flow measurements. In particular, the perturbations associated with sedimentation and surface temperature changes must be taken into account. Analytical solutions can be obtained only for individual, simplified versions of these problems, whereas any real example is complicated by the process of sediment compaction which changes the bulk thermal properties with depth. A physical model is developed which uses sediment porosity trends to predict the thermal parameters and material advection rates for an evolving sediment/basement system. These values are then used in a numerical solution to the heat flow equation to give estimates of the perturbed surface heat flux through time. In addition to variations in sedimentation rate, sediment type, radioactive heat production and surface temperature changes are considered. Heat flow corrections may vary by up to a factor of 2 according to sediment type while radioactive heat production can offset the effects of sedimentation by as much as 40 per cent. The results also indicate that alterations determined from simple analytical models tend to over-estimate the true perturbation to the flux.     

中国粮食生产空间关联网络的结构特征及其形成机制

基于1996—2018年中国省际粮食生产面板数据,在修正的引力模型准确测算粮食生产空间关联关系及构建空间关联矩阵的基础上,首先运用社会网络分析方法从整体特征、个体特征及块模型3个方面具体考察了粮食生产空间关联网络的结构特征,进一步采用二次指派程序方法探讨其形成机制。研究发现：① 省际粮食生产空间关联的密切程度在波动中提高,但仍有提升空间,网络结构呈现较好的稳定性和可达性,溢出效应具有多重叠加特性;② 省际粮食生产空间关联网络呈现主产区、主销区、平衡区“核心—边缘”分布格局,粮食主产区在网络中处于核心地位,粮食主销区和平衡区则处于边缘地位;③ 粮食生产空间关联网络可划分为净溢出、主受益、经纪人和双向溢出4个板块,板块间的溢出效应具有明显的梯度传递特征;④ 自然禀赋条件与社会经济因素的共同作用推动了粮食生产空间关联网络的形成,地理空间邻近性、经济发展水平与农村劳动力规模、机械服务规模、耕地资源的差异、降水量和日照时数的相近性对粮食生产空间关联网络的形成具有显著影响。     

Nature and Dynamics of an Active Block Stream, Kunlun Pass, Qinghai Province, People's Republic of China

Active block streams are common on the slopes of mountains on the northern, drier portion of the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibetan) Plateau. Between 1990 and 1995, the authors studied a block stream northeast of the crest of the Kunlun Pass at latitude 35°50’N, longitude 94°05’ E. It occurs on a 31° slope facing southwest at 4800 m altitude and consists of a 15 cm layer of blocks moving downslope over a sandy loam of lacustrine origin. The blocks are derived from both frost shattering of exposed bedrock and by ejection of blocks from the till capping the hill. No water flows in the block stream and its surface is level with the surrounding slope. Mean annual air temperature is –6°C and mean annual precipitation is about 320 mm. The few plants growing between the blocks exhibit elongated stems and/or roots, indicating movement of the upper layers of blocks relative to the underlying materials. Average mean annual downslope movement of the surface blocks ranges up to 95 cm but varies both across the block stream and also along its long axis. The blocks are gradually extending further downslope. Comparison of movement of lines painted on stones in summer and winter shows that most of the movement occurs in winter. The stones usually rotate randomly as they move, probably by sliding on ice. There is no obvious sorting or rounding of the blocks during movement downslope. The deposits produced differ from talus/scree sediments as they have a dip of less than the maximum angle of rest of dry sediment (c. 33°) and also show no sorting downslope. The movement of material takes place predominantly in winter, rather than in summer and the deposits occur in areas of negligible snow cover. Ground temperatures suggest exceptionally rapid temperature changes under the blocks, indicating air exchange in the voids. Mean ground temperatures in the loams beneath the blocks are about 7°C colder than in the adjacent soils. Winter snow covers are noticeably absent, and summer precipitation is often in the form of snow, which soon melts. Permafrost is present beneath the block stream but is absent in the sandy loam soils. The ground is also moister beneath the blocks. It appears that the surface blocks tend to slide downslope on the icy surface of the underlying blocks, perhaps aided by water from melting snow. This and the lack of sorting by clast size clearly differentiates them from talus slopes or avalanche deposits.     

Thrust faulting and crust—upper mantle structure in East Australia

Summary. The mid-crustal earthquake of 1973 March 9 (m_b= 5.5, h ≤ 20 km) located 60 km south-west of Sydney, Australia, provides unambiguous evidence of contemporary thrust faulting in South-eastern Australia — a region of high heat flow and Cenozoic basaltic volcanism. Aftershock locations suggest a steeply dipping fault in the depth range from 8 to 24 km with a lateral extent of about 8 km. The mechanism solution is consistent with a tectonic stress field that is dominated by east—west horizontal compression. A seismic moment of 5.7 ± 10²³± 20 per cent dyne-cm was computed from surface-wave amplitudes. Minimum values of slip and stress drop, 2 cm and 1 bar respectively, were estimated from the moment and a fault size taken' from aftershock locations.
Refinement modelling by a controlled Monte Carlo technique was used to provide unbiased models directly from multimode group velocities. The dispersion of fundamental and higher mode surface waves recorded at the digital high-gain station at Charters Towers, Queensland, and the WWSSN station at Adelaide, South Australia, is satisfied by crust- and upper-mantle models which have neither pronounced S-wave low-velocity zones nor thick high-velocity lids within 140 km of the Earth's surface. These models have subcrustal shear velocities of 4.20–4.32 km/s which are 0.4–0.5 km/s slower than Canadian shield shear velocities (CANSD).     

Temperature bounds from heat flow data on irregular non-isothermal surfaces

Summary. The formalism of Huestis for placing bounds on subsurface temperatures is generalized to the case of heat flow measurements on a surface which is neither flat nor isothermal. The strip extending between the surface and the depth of interest is imbedded in a larger flat strip extending to a horizontal level everywhere above the topography. Using linear programming, heat sources within and temperatures on the boundary of this simpler region are found such that the heat flow data and temperatures on the Earth's surface are fit, heat production constraints are met, and the extremal bound is achieved.     

气候变化和人类活动影响下澧水流域径流及其不同组分的变化简

目前径流变化相关研究较少涉及径流的不同组分。利用湖南省澧水流域4个水文站点长序列观测资料,不仅分析了2007-2011年相对于1985年以前径流总量及其历时曲线的变化,也分析了地表径流和基流及其历时曲线的变化。与1985年以前比,流域年降雨量保持不变,最显著的变化为森林覆盖率的增加和大量水库的修建。这些人类活动没有造成年径流总量、年基流量和年地表径流量的显著变化,但在日时间尺度上对径流过程产生了重要影响。地表径流和地下径流对人类活动存在差异性响应,2007年以后地表径流在洪峰期流量变小而其他时段变大,而地下径流汇水受人类活动影响较小,基流流量除枯水期外与1985年以前基本一致。本文所揭示的规律可能在中国南方具有一定的代表性。     

Convective and conductive heat transfer in sedimentary basins

In the Earth's crust the temperature is largely controlled by heat conduction. However, under some circumstances, the thermal state is disturbed by advection of heat associated with groundwater flow. The corresponding thermal disturbance depends on the water flow velocity (modulus and direction) and therefore thermal data may be used to constrain the pattern of natural fluid flow. In this paper, some models of thermal disturbance induced by convective heat transfer are presented. They are based on the assumption that the water flow is concentrated in thin permeable structures such as aquifer or fault zones. The steady-state and transient thermal effects associated with such scenarios are computed using a somewhat idealized model which depends on a small number of parameters: flow rate, time, aquifer geometry and thermal parameters of surrounding rocks. In order to extract the conductive and convective components of heat transfer from temperature data and to estimate the corresponding fluid flow rate, it is first necessary to estimate the thermal conductivity field. The problem of the estimation of thermal conductivity in clay-rich rocks, based on laboratory and in-situ measurements, is emphasized. Then a method is proposed for the inversion of temperature data in terms of fluid flow. Vertical and lateral variations of thermal conductivity are taken into account and the fluid flow is assumed to be concentrated on a specified surface (2-D quasi-horizontal pattern). Thermal effects of the flow are simulated by a distribution of surface heat production which can be calculated and then inverted in terms of horizontal fluid flow pattern.     

Comparison of theoretical and observed temperature profiles in Devon Island ice cap, Canada

Summary. A non-steady-state theoretical model is used to predict the present variation of temperature with depth in two boreholes in the Devon Island ice cap, Arctic Canada. The boreholes are 300 m apart and one of them reaches bedrock. The heat transfer equation is solved numerically with the record of past temperatures obtained from measurements of the variations of oxygen—isotope ratio with depth in the cores as surface boundary condition. The effects of ice advection, refreezing of meltwater percolating from the surface (the amount of which is recorded in the cores), heating due to firn compaction and ice deformation, and heat flow in the bedrock below the ice sheet are all included in the model. The free parameters are geothermal heat flux, present surface temperature and heat loss at the surface which depends on the depth of meltwater penetration and other factors. Agreement between observed and predicted temperature—depth profiles is very close. Latent heat released by percolating meltwater is the predominating factor in determining the temperature distribution in the upper half of each borehole. The temperature distribution is insensitive to the value of the factor used to convert oxygen—isotope ratio to temperature.     

A Teleseismic Delay Time Study Across the Central African Shear Zone In the Adamawa Region of Cameroon, West Africa

Summary. P -wave relative teleseismic residuals were measured for a network of seismological stations along a 300 km profile across the Adamawa Plateau and the Central African Shear Zone of central Cameroon, to determine the variation in crust and upper mantle velocity associated with these structures. A plot of the mean relative residuals for the stations shows a long wavelength (> 300 km) variation of amplitude 0.45 s. the slowest arrivals are located over and just to the north, of the faulted northern margin of the Adamawa Plateau. the residuals do not correlate with topography, surface geology or the previously determined crustal structure, in any simple way.
The Aki inversion technique has been used to invert the relative residuals into a 3-D model of velocity perturbations from a mean earth model. the results show the region is divided roughly into three blocks by two subvertical boundaries, striking ENE and traversing both the crust and upper mantle down to depths greater than 190km. the central block, which is 2 per cent slower than the adjacent blocks, roughly corresponds to the Central African Shear Zone. the Adamawa Plateau, as an individual uplifted area, is explained by the interaction of a regional anomalous upper mantle associated with the West African Rift System, and the Central African Shear Zone, which provided a conduit for heat flow to the surface.     

Subsidence in the super-deep Pattani and Malay basins of Southeast Asia: a coupled model incorporating lower-crustal flow in response to post-rift sediment loading

Two Early Cenozoic rifts in Southeast Asia (beneath the Pattani and Malay basins) experienced only limited upper-crustal extension (β≤1.5); yet very thick post-rift sequences are present, with 6–12 km of Late Cenozoic terrestrial and shallow-marine sediment derived from adjacent sources. Conventional post-rift backstripping requires depth-dependent lithospheric thinning by β=2–4 to explain these tremendous thicknesses. We assess an alternative explanation for this post-rift subsidence, involving lower-crustal flow from beneath these basins in response to lateral pressure-gradients induced by the sediment loads and the negative loads arising from the erosion of their sediment sources. We calculate that increased rates of erosion in western Thailand in the Early Miocene placed the crust in a non-steady thermal state, such that the depth (and thus, the pressure) at the base of the brittle upper crust subsequently varied over time. Following such a perturbation, thermal and mass-flux steady-state conditions took millions of years to re-establish. In the meantime, the lateral pressure-gradient caused net outflow of lower crust, thinning the crust beneath the depocentre by several kilometres (mimicking the isostatic effect of greater crustal extension having occurred beforehand) and thickening it beneath the sediment source region. The local combination of hot crust and high rates of surface processes, causing lower-crustal flow to be particularly vigorous and thus making its effects more readily identifiable, means that the Pattani and Malay basins represent a set of conditions different from basins in many other regions. However, lower-crustal flow induced by surface processes will also occur to some extent, but less recognisably, in many other continental crustal provinces, but its effects may be mistaken for those of other processes, such as larger-magnitude stretching and/or depth-dependent stretching.     

基于Google Earth和MODIS陆地数据的农林地转换对地表温度的影响——以长江中下游及毗邻地区为例

揭示耕地与林地转换对地表温度的影响对于认识人类活动的气候与环境效应具有重要意义。基于卫星遥感数据的统计分析是揭示土地利用/覆盖变化对地表温度影响的重要手段。但是,在景观破碎度较高地区,混合像元问题成为使用这一技术手段的主要限制性因素,中国南方长江流域尤为典型。为突破这一限制,论文基于Google Earth高清影像,在1 km尺度上辨识了200对耕地与林地纯像元,进而利用MODIS陆地数据产品,对比分析了耕地与林地的地表温度(LST)、叶面积指数(LAI)、地表反照率(Albedo)之差。结果表明：耕地的LST高于林地,白天和夜间温度分别约偏高2.75 ℃和1.15 ℃,并且温差因季节而异,白昼温差呈双峰(分别是5月和10月,温差约3.18 ℃和3.33 ℃),夜间温差为单峰(7月,约2.46 ℃)。同时,温差因地而异,总体表现为西高东低,陕甘交界处的白昼温差最大,年平均约为3.83 ℃;安徽中南部温差最小,约为1.1 ℃。耕地与林地的LST之差主要由蒸散发的差异所致。林地的LAI较大,蒸散发较强,地表向大气的潜热通量较大,用于直接加热地表的感热相对偏少,因而LST相对偏低。上述结果表明近年来长江流域及毗邻地区的耕地转为林地通过增加蒸发产生了一定的致冷效应。