Initiation conditions for debris flows generated by runoff at Chalk Cliffs, central Colorado

We have monitored initiation conditions for six debris flows between May 2004 and July 2006 in a 0.3 km² drainage basin at Chalk Cliffs; a band of hydrothermally-altered quartz monzonite in central Colorado. Debris flows were initiated by water runoff from colluvium and bedrock that entrained sediment from rills and channels with slopes ranging from about 14° to 45°. The availability of channel material is essentially unlimited because of thick channel fill and refilling following debris flows by rock fall and dry ravel processes. Rainfall exceeding I = 6.61(D)^− 0.77, where I is rainfall intensity (mm/h), and D is duration (h), was required for the initiation of debris flows in the drainage basin. The approximate minimum runoff discharge from the surface of bedrock required to initiate debris flows in the channels was 0.15 m³/s. Colluvium in the basin was unsaturated immediately prior to (antecedent) and during debris flows. Antecedent, volumetric moisture levels in colluvium at depths of 1 cm and 29 cm ranged from 4–9%, and 4–7%, respectively. During debris flows, peak moisture levels in colluvium at depths of 1 cm and 29 cm ranged from 10–20%, and 4–12%, respectively. Channel sediment at a depth of 45 cm was unsaturated before and during debris flows; antecedent moisture ranged from 20–22%, and peak moisture ranged from 24–38%. Although we have no measurements from shallow rill or channel sediment, we infer that it was unsaturated before debris flows, and saturated by surface-water runoff during debris flows.Our results allow us to make the following general statements with regard to debris flows generated by runoff in semi-arid to arid mountainous regions: 1) high antecedent moisture levels in hillslope and channel sediment are not required for the initiation of debris flows by runoff, 2) locations of entrainment of sediment by successive runoff events can vary within a basin as a function of variations in the thickness of existing channel fill and the rate of replenishment of channel fill by rock fall and dry ravel processes following debris flows, and 3) rainfall and simulated surface-water discharge thresholds can be useful in understanding and predicting debris flows generated by runoff and sediment entrainment.     

典型黄土坡面土壤侵蚀特征及径流流速空间变化试验研究

为了明确土壤性质对坡面侵蚀方式作用机制的影响,本研究采用室内模拟降雨试验,选取黄土高原典型暴雨强度,在不同坡度条件下,对两种黄土的坡面侵蚀方式、形态特征、产流产沙过程及其相应径流流速的变化规律进行了研究。结果表明,绥德土径流量明显高于安塞土,10º、15º和20º时前者的平均径流量分别比后者高出51.1%、55.5%和63.0%,且前者更易形成细沟,使得其平均含沙量和平均产沙率分别是后者的1.14~3.59倍和2.50~8.48倍。在片蚀阶段,与绥德土相比,安塞土的含沙量较高,后者的平均含沙量是前者的1.24~1.73倍,但两种土壤的含沙量和产沙规律相同,均表现为先快速增加到最大值,然后逐渐降低到相对稳定状态,该现象证明片蚀的初期阶段主要受控于径流输沙能力,后期受径流的剥蚀能力控制。在细沟侵蚀阶段,绥德土细沟发育以沟头溯源侵蚀为主,崩塌作用频繁,该侵蚀形式不仅控制着细沟形态的总体特征,也导致含沙量和产沙率均急剧增加,该阶段平均含沙量是相应片蚀阶段的3.25~4.34倍。细沟沟口下方坡面存在明显的泥沙沉积带,表明细沟集中水流的搬运能力远高于坡面漫流,细沟侵蚀主要受径流输沙能力控制。两种土壤的径流流速均表现为坡面下部高于坡面上部,径流稳定后高于径流稳定前,总体来看,绥德土和安塞土上坡和径流稳定后的平均流速分别是下坡和径流稳定前的1.4倍、1.25倍和1.75倍、1.29倍,此外细沟侵蚀或侵蚀强度与微地貌形态之间的互馈作用对径流流速也有较大影响。     

Analysis of soil surface component patterns affecting runoff generation. An example of methods applied to Mediterranean hillslopes in Alicante (Spain)

Spatial patterns of soil surface components (vegetation, rock fragments, crusts, bedrock outcrops, etc.) are a key factor determining hydrological functioning of hillslopes. A methodological approach to analyse the patterns of soil surface components at a detailed scale is proposed in this paper. The methods proposed are applied to two contrasting semi-arid Mediterranean hillslopes, and the influence of soil surface component patterns on the runoff response of the slopes was analysed. A soil surface components map was derived from a high resolution photo-mosaic obtained in the field by means of a digital camera. Rainfall simulation experimental data were used to characterise the hydrological behaviour of areas with a specific pattern of soil surface components by means of the parameters of the Horton equation. Plot runoff data were extrapolated at the hillslope scale based on the soil surface component maps and their hydrological characterisation. The results show that in both slopes runoff generation is concentrated up- and downslope, with a water accepting area in the centre of both slopes disrupting the hydrological connectivity at the slope scale. This reinfiltration patch at the centre of the slope is related to the type of soil surface component and its spatial pattern. Herbaceous vegetation and ‘on top rock fragments’ increase the infiltration capacity of soils at the centre of the slope. In contrast, embedded rock fragments, rock outcrops, as well as crusted surfaces located in the upper and lower slopes favour runoff generation in these areas. In addition, a general pattern of water contribution areas downslope is apparent on both slopes. The south-facing slope shows a higher hydrological connectivity and more runoff. 55% of the surface of the south-facing slope produces runoff at the end of a 1 hour rainfall event and 17.3% of the surface is covered by a runoff depth between 0.5 and 1 mm. While on the north-facing slope only 38% of the surface produces runoff under the same conditions. Longitudinal connectivity of runoff is higher at the south-facing slope where more runoff-generating surfaces appear and where the vegetation pattern favours the connectivity of bare areas.     

坡面侵蚀过程中细沟水流动力学参数估算探讨

细沟侵蚀是坡面侵蚀的主要方式 ,在坡面侵蚀产沙及其输移过程中占有重要的地位和作用。通过放水冲刷试验 ,测定并研究了坡面细沟中径流的水力要素特征及其相互关系。试验中坡度采用 6° ,10°,12°和 15°共 4级 ,径流流量变化控制在 40～ 5 0 0ml/s之间。结果表明 ,黄土陡坡上细沟径流的流速、过水断面宽度 ,以及径流深都能表示成径流量和坡度的函数。在确定坡面细沟流各水力要素间关系指数的基础上 ,探讨了用径流量和坡度因子估算细沟径流水力参数的方法。经用实测资料验证 ,在实验土壤及流量、坡度条件下 ,用文中提出的方法估算的细沟径流深具有一定的精度。     

Rates of sheet and rill erosion in Germany — A meta-analysis

Knowledge of erosion rates under real conditions is of great concern regarding sustainability of landuse and off-site effects on water bodies and settlements. Experimentally derived rates of sheet and rill erosion are often biased by experimental settings, which deviate considerably from typical landuse, by short measuring periods and by small spatial extensions, which do not account for the pronounced spatio-temporal variability of erosion events. We compiled data from 27 studies covering 1076 plot years to account for this variability. Modelling was used to correct for deficiencies in the experimental settings, which overrepresented arable land and used steeper and shorter slopes as well as higher erosivity than typically found in reality. For example, the average slope gradient was 5.9° for all arable plot experiments while it is only 2.6° on total arable land in Germany. The expected soil loss by sheet and rill erosion in Germany after taking real slopes, landuse and erosivity into account averaged 2.7 t ha^− 1 yr^− 1. Annual crops contributed the largest proportion (90%) but hops despite its negligible contribution to landuse (0.06%) still contribute 1.0% due to its extraordinary rapid erosion, which was even faster than the measured bare fallow soil loss standardized to otherwise identical conditions. Bare fallow soil loss, which is often used as baseline, was 80 t ha^− 1 yr^− 1 when standardized to 5.1° slope gradient, 200 m flow path length, and average German erosivity.     

Relations between interrill erosion processes and sediment particle size distribution in a semiarid Mediterranean area of SE of Spain

Erosion and sediment characteristics were measured using simulated rainfall on two cultivated soils of contrasting lithology (Quaternary calcareous colluvium and Tertiary marls) in a semiarid Mediterranean area of SE Spain. Two rainfall intensities, high (56.0±2.4 mm h⁻¹) and medium (31.4±1.4 mm h⁻¹), were used in order to know the mechanisms involved in each selected condition. For each simulated event, runoff and sediment were sampled at 1-min intervals on a 1-m wide by 2-m long erosion plot. The erosion rate was calculated as the total amount of soil lost divided by the time period of the test. The duration of the test was that needed to reach steady state runoff, an average time of 24.5 min for Quaternary calcareous colluvium and 17.7 min for Tertiary marls. The size distribution of the transported sediment in the field (effective size distribution) was compared with equivalent measurements of the same samples after chemical and mechanical dispersion (ultimate size distribution) to investigate the detachment and transport mechanisms involved in sediment mobilisation. The results showed that the soil type determined the hydrological response, regardless of the rainfall intensity. The erosional response was, however, determined by the rainfall and soil surface characteristics.In Quaternary calcareous colluvial soils, the predominant erosion process depended on the rainfall intensity, with a prevailing detachment-limited condition in high-intensity events and prevailing transport-limited conditions in those events of medium intensity. These differences in the main erosion processes were reflected in the size of the transported material and in the change in sediment size within the storm. Thus, a time-dependent size distribution of the eroded material (decreasing coarse fractions and increasing fine fractions with runoff time) was observed for high-intensity events. In medium-intensity events, on the other hand, the time-independent size distribution of the eroded material indicated transport-limited erosion.Due to the rapid surface crusting on the Tertiary marl soil, no differences in the main erosion processes or in the sediment size distribution occurred for the different rainfall intensities tested. The erosion of marl soils was determined mainly by the limited quantity of available sediment.The effective size of material was a more sensitive parameter than the ultimate size of the sediment to study the way in which the sediment was transported.     

黄土坡面发育平稳的细沟流水动力学特性

由于天然降雨存在间歇性,常会出现前期降雨已经发育成型的细沟又经历了二次降雨的情况,但目前对这一条件下细沟流水动力学特性的研究还很少。本文采用室内人工模拟降雨的方法,通过间隔24 h两场不同雨强的降雨,研究黄土坡面经过第一场降雨形成比较稳定的细沟之后,在第二场较小雨强降雨过程中,细沟发育平稳时的流水动力学特性。研究结果表明:①细沟流速大小受坡长影响并不显著,相同坡度下不同坡长的细沟流平均流速差别不大;细沟流速受细沟形态影响较大,25°坡面比20°坡面细沟密度大,流速相对较小;②剪切力大小受流量和坡度共同作用;雷诺数与水流剪切力呈显著正相关关系,弗洛德数与水流剪切力则呈显著负相关关系;③随着距坡顶距离的增加,阻力系数呈增大趋势;第二次降雨强度相同,坡度大的坡面上阻力系数也较大,可见阻力系数与径流量和坡度的关系十分紧密;阻力系数与雷诺数之间呈显著正相关关系,雷诺数的增加意味着平均流速增大,水流强度增大导致细沟形态更为复杂,水流受到的阻力增大;虽然雷诺数增加同时也意味着水流深度增大,但从试验结果可见,陡坡条件下阻力系数受流速的影响较大。     

Spatial distribution of surface conditions and runoff generation in small arid watersheds, Zin Valley Badlands, Israel

High rill density may be regarded as indicative of frequent and integrated runoff along a drainage network. However, field observations of soil development and rill geometry in small, first-order catchments (0.1 to 1 ha) of the Zin Valley Badlands, northern Negev, Israel, suggest a pattern of partial area contribution and frequent flow discontinuities along hillslopes and channels. Changing soil properties, associated with an increase of slope angle and slope length, appear to be responsible for high infiltration on the slopes, leading to nonuniform runoff generation within small drainage basins. Runoff observation, sprinkling tests, and soil analysis along ridges and sideslopes were carried out to test this hypothesis. The results confirmed that infiltration capacity on the sideslopes is significantly higher than on the ridges. Under current rainfall conditions, only extreme rainfall intensities are sufficient to generate runoff along entire slopes. The discontinuous nature of most runoff events causes erosion on ridges and deposition on slopes, which enhances soil development on the valley sideslopes, creating a positive feedback on infiltration rate and depth. This demonstrates that the links between within-storm rainfall conditions and spatial distribution of soil characteristics have to be incorporated into our understanding of landscape development in badlands.     

Groundwater control on the suspended sediment load in the Na Borges River, Mallorca, Spain

Groundwater dominance has important effects on the hydrological and geomorphological characteristics of river systems. Low suspended sediment concentrations and high water clarity are expected because significant inputs of sediment-free spring water dilute the suspended sediment generated by storms. However, in many Mediterranean rivers, groundwater dominance is characterised by seasonal alternations of influent and effluent discharge involving significant variability on the sediment transport regimes. Such areas are often subject to soil and water conservation practices over the centuries that have reduced the sediment contribution from agricultural fields and favour subsurface flow to rivers. Moreover, urbanisation during the twentieth century has changed the catchment hydrology and altered basic river processes due to its ‘flashy’ regime. In this context, we monitored suspended sediment fluxes during a two-year period in the Na Borges River, a lowland agricultural catchment (319 km²) on the island of Mallorca (Balearic Islands). The suspended sediment concentration (SSC) was lower when the base flow index (i.e., relative proportion of baseflow compared to stormflow, BFI) was higher. Therefore, strong seasonal contrasts explain the high SSC coefficient of variation, which is clearly related to dilution effects associated with different groundwater and surface water seasonal interactions. A lack of correlation in the Q-SSC rating curves shows that factors other than discharge control sediment transport. As a result, at the event scale, multiple regressions illustrate that groundwater and surface water interactions are involved in the sedimentary response of flood events. In the winter, the stability of baseflow driven by groundwater contributions and agricultural and urban spills causes hydraulic variables (i.e., maximum discharge) to exert the most important control on events, whereas in the summer, it is necessary to accumulate important volumes of rainfall, creating a minimum of wet conditions in the catchment to activate hydrological pathways and deliver sediment to the drainage network. The BFI is also related to sediment delivery processes, as the loads are higher with lower BFI, corroborating the fact that most sediment movement is caused by stormflow and its related factors. Overall, suspended sediment yields were very low (i.e., < 1 t km^− 2 yr^− 1) at all measuring sites. Such values are the consequence of the limited sediment delivery attributable to soil conservation practices, low surface runoff coefficients and specific geomorphic features of groundwater-dominated rivers, such as low drainage density, low gradient, steep valley walls and flat valley floors.     

CHANNEL CHANGES IN ARID BADLANDS,BORREGO SPRINGS,CALIFORNIA

Geometric, hydraulic, and sediment characteristics in arid badlands near Borrego Springs, California, are examined in relation to precipitation events of varying magnitude and frequency. The longitudinal and cross profiles of five ephemeral channels occupying a 2.5 km² catchment were surveyed under pre-and post-storm conditions during the February 1976-December 1978 period. Such arid region channels offer the opportunity to observe and explain rates and methods of profile change under different flow types in a short period of time. Catchment responses to light winter events include substantial lags between initial precipitation and channel runoff, the limited downstream movement of small slugs of sediment, high losses of discharge into channel alluvium, and prolonged mass movement of debris from adjacent hillslopes into the channels following the storm events thus promoting aggradation along certain channel reaches. Responses to intense summer storms include explosive channel and hillslope runoff and localized scour and fill, both during and following such events, thereby promoting substantial aggradation and erosion along portions of the channels. Although ephemeral flow conditions may produce channel profiles which are distinct from those in perennial streams, the evaluation of the methods of sediment transport and the storage of debris in arid catchments offer useful explanation for other environments.     

IMPACTS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LAND USE ON PROCESSES OF SOIL AND WATER LOSS OVER PURPLE SOIL SLOPELAND

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黄河沙漠宽谷段水沙变化特征及驱动因素

根据定位观测、第一次全国水利普查、遥感影像解译的数据,利用MWP、双累计曲线、水土保持分析法、数学模拟等方法,分析了黄河上游水沙变化特征,评估了多元驱动因素对2000-2012年黄河下河沿-头道拐沙漠宽谷段水沙变化的贡献率。结果表明:与20世纪70年代以前的基准期相比,2000年以来径流量、输沙量同步减少,水沙关系也发生变化,单位径流量的输沙量明显减少;沙漠宽谷段径流量减幅沿程不断增加而输沙量减幅沿程变化不大,水沙年内分配较基准期发生倒置,来沙系数不断减小;灌区引水引沙、水土保持措施、水库拦沙、支流来水来沙、水库调蓄及河道冲淤是沙漠宽谷段水沙变化的主要影响因子;经济社会发展用水对沙漠宽谷段径流量减少的作用最大,贡献率为81%,其次是水库蓄泄量,占15%以上;水库拦沙对头道拐输沙量减少的贡献率最大,占41%,其次是支流水土保持措施,贡献率约占13%,入黄风沙减少的贡献率并不大,约为6%,而河道淤积量、灌区引沙量较基准期都是减少的,贡献率分别约为-41%和-8%;近10多年来降雨等自然因素对水沙变化的作用相对不大,起主要作用的是水库运用、水土保持、经济社会发展等人类活动因素。     

Infiltration on mountain slopes: a comparison of three environments

Water is well established as a major driver of the geomorphic change that eventually reduces mountains to lower relief landscapes. Nonetheless, within the altitudinal limits of continuous vegetation in humid climates, water is also an essential factor in slope stability. In this paper, we present results from field experiments to determine infiltration rates at forested sites in the Andes Mountains (Ecuador), the southern Appalachian Mountains (USA), and the Luquillo Mountains (Puerto Rico). Using a portable rainfall simulator–infiltrometer (all three areas), and a single ring infiltrometer (Andes), we determined infiltration rates, even on steep slopes. Based on these results, we examine the spatial variability of infiltration, the relationship of rainfall runoff and infiltration to landscape position, the influence of vegetation on infiltration rates on slopes, and the implications of this research for better understanding erosional processes and landscape change.Infiltration rates ranged from 6 to 206 mm/h on lower slopes of the Andes, 16 to 117 mm/h in the southern Appalachians, and 0 to 106 mm/h in the Luquillo Mountains. These rates exceed those of most natural rain events, confirming that surface runoff is rare in montane forests with deep soil/regolith mantles. On well-drained forested slopes and ridges, apparent steady-state infiltration may be controlled by the near-surface downslope movement of infiltrated water rather than by characteristics of the full vertical soil profile. With only two exceptions, the local variability of infiltration rates at the scale of 10° m overpowered other expected spatial relationships between infiltration, vegetation type, slope position, and soil factors. One exception was the significant difference between infiltration rates on alluvial versus upland soils in the Andean study area. The other exception was the significant difference between infiltration rates in topographic coves compared to other slope positions in the tabonuco forest of one watershed in the Luquillo Mountains. Our research provides additional evidence of the ability of forests and forest soils to preserve geomorphic features from denudation by surface erosion, documents the importance of subsurface flow in mountain forests, and supports the need for caution in extrapolating infiltration rates.     

Soil erodibility and processes of water erosion on hillslope

The importance of the inherent resistance of soil to erosional processes, or soil erodibility, is generally recognized in hillslope and fluvial geomorphology, but the full implications of the dynamic soil properties that affect erodibility are seldom considered. In Canada, a wide spectrum of soils and erosional processes has stimulated much research related to soil erodibility. This paper aims to place this work in an international framework of research on water erosion processes, and to identify critical emerging research questions. It focuses particularly on experimental research on rill and interrill erosion using simulated rainfall and recently developed techniques that provide data at appropriate temporal and spatial scales, essential for event-based soil erosion prediction. Results show that many components of erosional response, such as partitioning between rill and interrill or surface and subsurface processes, threshold hydraulic conditions for rill incision, rill network configuration and hillslope sediment delivery, are strongly affected by spatially variable and temporally dynamic soil properties. This agrees with other recent studies, but contrasts markedly with long-held concepts of soil credibility as an essentially constant property for any soil type. Properties that determine erodibility, such as soil aggregation and shear strength, are strongly affected by climatic factors such as rainfall distribution and frost action, and show systematic seasonal variation. They can also change significantly over much shorter time scales with subtle variations in soil water conditions, organic composition, microbiological activity, age-hardening and the structural effect of applied stresses. Property changes between and during rainstorms can dramatically affect the incidence and intensity of rill and interrill erosion and, therefore, both short and long-term hillslope erosional response. Similar property changes, linked to climatic conditions, may also significantly influence the stability and resilience of plant species and vegetation systems. Full understanding of such changes is essential if current event-based soil erosion models such as WEPP and EUROSEM are to attain their full potential predictive precision. The complexity of the interacting processes involved may, however, ultimately make stochastic modelling more effective than physically based modelling in predicting hillslope response to erodibility dynamics.     

坡面径流冲刷及泥沙输移特征的试验研究

通过室内放水冲刷试验,对坡面细沟侵蚀发生的临界条件、细沟发展过程中的侵蚀产沙特征、以及影响细沟侵蚀产沙的因素进行了分析研究,得出了试验土条件下产生细沟的临界流量与坡面坡度的关系式.在分析产沙变化的基础上,探讨了细沟侵蚀量随径流量和坡面倾斜度的变化规律.     

Effectiveness of coir-based rolled erosion control systems in reducing sediment transport from hillslopes

Accelerated soil erosion is ubiquitous on human-modified hillslopes. A variety of erosion control products have been developed to reduce on-site soil resource degradation, and off-site transport of sediment and sediment-associated contaminants to receiving water bodies. However, limited quantitative data are available to assess erosion reduction effectiveness, and to establish the salient properties of the erosion control products. A replicated field-based rainfall simulation study was conducted to compare the runoff and erosion effectiveness of three coir (coconut) fiber rolled erosion control systems (RECSs) with a bare (control) treatment. Detailed temporal measurements of runoff and sediment transport were made during two phases of each experiment: (1) a 110-min application of rainfall via a rainfall simulator at 35 mm h⁻¹ after runoff initiation and (2) a 30-min period, at 3 times the flow rate of phase 1, applied via an overland flow generator. All coir treatments enhanced infiltration, delayed time to runoff generation, reduced intensity of rill incision, and reduced sediment output compared to bare treatments. More importantly, statistically significant differences were observed between coir RECSs of different architecture. For the two open weave coir systems tested, the most effective design had a higher mass per area, and less open space between the regularly aligned grid of fibers. The random fiber coir architecture was the most effective, having significantly lower runoff sediment concentrations, lower sediment yields, and a lower frequency of rill initiation. The differences in system architecture are examined in light of fundamental controls on runoff and erosion processes.     

Wind erosion from military training lands in the Mojave Desert, California, U.S.A.

Military training activities reduce vegetation cover, disturb crusts, and degrade soil aggregates, making the land more vulnerable to wind erosion. The objective of this study was to quantify wind erosion rates for typical conditions at the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center, Twentynine Palms, CA, U.S.A. Five Big Spring Number Eight (BSNE) sampler stations were installed at each of five sites. Each BSNE station consisted of five BSNE samplers with the lowest sampler at 0·05 m and the highest sampler at 1·0 m above the soil surface. Once a month, sediment was collected from the samplers for analysis. Occurrence of saltating soil aggregates was recorded every hour using Sensits, one at each site. The site with the most erosion had a sediment discharge of 311 kg m⁻¹ over a period of 17 months. Other sites eroded much less because of significant rock cover or the presence of a crust. Hourly sediment discharge was estimated combining hourly Sensit count and monthly sediment discharge measured using BSNE samplers. More simultaneously measured data are needed to better characterize the relationship between these two and reconstruct a detailed time-series of wind erosion. This measured time-series can then be used for comparison with simulation results from process-based wind erosion models such as the Wind Erosion Prediction System (WEPS), once it has been adapted to the unique aspects of military lands.     

西宁盆地黄土区不同草本植物和坡形条件下坡面产流产沙特征

为进一步研究不同草本植物和边坡坡面形态对坡面产流产沙的影响,以西宁盆地毛鸡湾流域长岭绿化区作为试验区,设计了直形和阶梯形2种坡形,选取3种优势草本老芒麦(Elymus sibiricus Linn.)、垂穗披碱草(Ely-mus nutans Griseb.)和细茎冰草(Agropyron trachycaulum L...     

RUNOFF PRODUCTION AND EROSION PROCESSES ON A DEHESA IN WESTERN SPAIN*

ABSTRACT. Runoff generation and soil erosion were investigated at the Guadalperalón experimental watershed (western Spain), within the land‐use system known as dehesa, or open, managed evergreen forests. Season and type of surface were found to control runoff and soil‐loss rates. Five soil units were selected as representative of surface types found in the study area: hillslope grass, bottom grass, tree cover, sheep trails, and shrub cover. Measurements were made in various conditions with simulated rainfall to gain an idea of the annual variation in runoff and soil loss. Important seasonal differences were noted due to surface cover and moisture content of soil, but erosion rates were determined primarily by runoff. Surfaces covered with grass and shrubs always showed less erosion; surfaces covered with holm oaks showed higher runoff rates, due to the hydrophobic character of the soils. Concentrations of runoff sediment during the simulations confirmed that erosion rates at the study site depended directly on the sediment available on the soil surface.