辽东半岛早白垩世三股流岩体岩石成因:微量元素模拟和Sr-Nd同位素的制约

辽东半岛在中生代发生大规模的岩浆活动和金成矿作用,其中尤以白垩纪岩浆作用最为强烈。本文对早白垩世三股流岩体进行了锆石U-Pb年代学、全岩地球化学和Sr-Nd同位素研究。三股流岩体主要由似斑状角闪黑云花岗岩和细粒黑云母花岗岩组成,分别形成于125.1±1.2Ma和128.7±2.2Ma。穿切三股流岩体的闪长岩脉形成于125.1±2.4Ma。角闪黑云花岗岩具有准铝质、富水、高氧逸度特征,为高钾钙碱性I型花岗岩。微量元素模拟和Sr-Nd同位素表明角闪黑云花岗岩可能来源于古元古代变基性岩和辽河群变中性岩的部分熔融。细粒黑云母花岗岩并非直接来源于中下地壳岩石的部分熔融,而是角闪黑云花岗岩分异演化的结果。岩相学和微量元素模拟表明,分离相主要为钾长石+斜长石+角闪石+黑云母+石英。细粒黑云母花岗岩亏损中稀土的特征表明榍石也是重要的分离相。随着岩浆的演化,粒间高硅熔体由于发生水饱和而快速结晶形成具有细粒结构的高硅黑云母花岗岩。闪长岩脉具有高Mg^#（0.51~0.52）和高Sr/Y（83.3~85.5）特征,属于埃达克质高镁闪长岩。相对于三股流花岗岩,较低的⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr初始值（0.708723）、负的ε_Nd（t）值（-14.1）指示闪长岩脉可能形成于幔源岩浆和壳源岩浆的混合作用。由于太平洋板块的俯冲造成华北克拉通的减薄,早白垩世辽东半岛处于强烈伸展体制,富集岩浆圈地幔部分形成的玄武质岩浆底侵下地壳,引起中下地壳发生部分熔融并发生强烈的结晶分异,形成三股流岩体。同时,玄武质岩浆在上升过程中与壳源花岗质岩浆发生一定程度的混合作用,形成埃达克质高镁闪长岩脉。     

栖霞牙山花岗岩及其暗色包体地球化学特征及成因研究

栖霞牙山花岗岩体形成于中生代早白垩世（118 Ma）,其岩石类型以花岗岩和花岗闪长岩为主,岩体中发育大量的暗色闪长质微粒包体。通过对牙山花岗岩及其暗色包体地球化学特征研究表明,包体围岩w（SiO₂）=65.5%~68.82%,铝饱和度（A/CNK）为0.89~1.03<1.1,为准铝质钙碱性Ⅰ型花岗岩;暗色包体具有较低w（SiO₂）值（54.82%~60.89%）、高w（TFe₂O₃）值（6.11%~8.15%）、高w（MgO）值（3.57%~5.19%）的特征。稀土元素配分模式图显示二者皆为轻稀土富集的右倾型曲线,微量元素蛛网图中二者均表现为富集Ba、K等大离子亲石元素,亏损Ta、Nb、Ti等高场强元素,具有大陆地壳的特征。暗色包体与寄主岩石的Sr同位素初始比值（⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr）_i分别为0.709 29~0.709 58和0.709 21~0.709 71,应为同源岩浆的产物。两阶段Nd模式年龄（T_2DM）分为2 291 Ma-2 391 Ma和2 208 Ma-2 353 Ma,表明可能是古元古界陆壳物质部分熔融的产物。Pb同位素特征显示牙山岩体的原始岩浆以下地壳为主,w（Nb）/w（Ta）值介于下地壳与原始地幔之间,表明可能受到幔源物质的影响,包体中大量磷灰石呈针状结晶状态,进一步暗示存在岩浆混合作用。综上并结合区域构造背景认为,牙山岩体为早白垩世中晚期起源于火山弧环境的壳源特征花岗岩,形成过程中存在幔源物质的加入,它的形成与太平洋板块的俯冲作用密切相关。     

西藏努林晚白垩世花岗闪长岩地球化学特征及成因

南冈底斯晚白垩世岩浆岩的成因及地球动力学机制一直存在争议。本文对冈底斯南缘努林花岗闪长岩开展地球化学、锆石U-Pb年代学及同位素示踪研究。结果显示,该岩体具有富SiO₂（66.62%～67.81%）、高Al₂O₃（15.11%～15.66%）、高Sr（>481×10^-6）,低Y（≤8.13×10^-6）和低Yb（≤0.73×10^-6）特征,Sr/Y比值达59～111,显示埃达克岩的特征;岩石轻稀土富集,重稀土亏损,具有显著的Eu正异常;富集大离子亲石元素,亏损高场强元素。（⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr）_i=0.704011～0.704244,ε_Nd（t）=＋3.61～＋5.75,总体反映地幔源区的Sr、Nd同位素特征。锆石U-Pb LA-ICP-MS测年显示存在83Ma和89Ma两组年龄。结合地质及地球化学分析,认为努林花岗闪长岩是新特提斯洋洋脊俯冲引起的镁铁质新生下地壳部分熔融的产物。     

藏南冈底斯岩基东段晚白垩世早期朗县杂岩的岩石成因和深部地球动力学过程

藏南冈底斯岩基晚白垩世早期岩浆岩保存了有关新特提斯洋的俯冲演化过程和大陆地壳生长的重要信息。本文对朗县杂岩中出露的晚白垩世早期中酸性岩（岩脉）开展了全岩元素地球化学、锆石U-Pb地质年代学、同位素（Sr、Nd和Hf）组成的研究。闪长岩和花岗闪长岩年龄为92.4~86.9Ma,花岗岩（脉）年龄为91.9~88.6Ma,均为晚白垩世早期岩浆作用的产物。闪长岩和花岗闪长岩具有高钾钙碱性偏铝质特征,具有较高的锆石Hf（ε_Hf（t）=+8.3~+13.2,平均值+10.9）和全岩Nd（ε_Nd（t）=+3.2~+2.7）同位素组成,为受俯冲板片流体和大洋沉积物熔体共同交代的地幔楔部分熔融形成,闪长岩岩浆源区形成深度较浅且受板片流体的交代程度较高,花岗闪长岩岩浆源区更深,受沉积物熔体交代程度较高。花岗岩（脉）在主量元素、稀土元素和微量元素组成上显示明显差异,可划分为两类,第一类花岗岩属于低钾钙碱性系列,Na₂O/K₂O>3.0,稀土总量较高,具有明显的Eu负异常,Sr/Y低（<7.2）。在主量元素组成上,该类花岗岩与闪长岩和花岗闪长岩形成较好的线性演化关系,表明它们可能是上述中酸性岩浆演化的产物。第二类花岗岩属于高钾钙碱性系列,Na₂O/K₂O较低（均<1.0）,铝饱和指数较高（A/CNK=1.01~1.02）,发育角闪石,稀土总量较低,具有微弱负或无Eu异常（Eu/Eu^*=0.88~1.12）,Sr/Y比值（33.8~55.4）较高,锆石Hf（ε_Hf（t）=+4.1~+10.8）和全岩Nd（ε_Nd（t）=+0.8）同位素组成都较低,为新生下地壳部分熔融形成。结合冈底斯岩基晚白垩世早期（100~87Ma）岩浆岩已有的研究结果,认为新特提斯洋板片自早白垩世以高角度俯冲,在晚白垩世早期俯冲板片发生回撤,导致软流圈物质上涌增强,诱发熔流体交代过的地幔楔较高程度的部分熔融形成镁铁质岩浆。这些镁铁质岩浆上升侵位到下地壳,发生不同程度的分离结晶作用并诱发新生下地壳部分熔融,形成晚白垩世岩石地球化学性质各异的岩浆岩。     

新疆准噶尔北东缘乌图布拉克岩体形成时代、地球化学特征及地质意义

乌图布拉克岩体位于准噶尔北东缘,额尔齐斯-玛因鄂博构造带南侧。岩体主要由花岗闪长岩和二长花岗岩组成,有少量石英闪长岩和钾长花岗岩。岩体的锆石SHRIMP U-Pb年龄为360.1±3.6Ma。岩石的K₂O+Na₂O=7.05%~9.48%,A/NKC=0.91~1.04,属准铝-过铝质“I”型花岗岩。岩石稀土总量低,∑REE为72×10^-6~184×10^-6,轻稀土富集,(La/Yb)_N=5~13。石英闪长岩、花岗闪长岩、二长花岗岩具弱的铕负异常或无明显异常（δEu=0.72~0.98）;钾长花岗岩铕负异常明显（δEu=0.15~0.21）。在微量元素配分模式中,具有Sr、Ba、P、Ti的亏损,而Nb、Ta亏损不明显。岩石有低的Sr初始值（0.70165~0.70462）和高的ε_Nd(t)u（+4.7~+6.9）。2个样品的Nd模式年龄分别为758Ma和551Ma。上述特征表明,岩浆可能具有较复杂的来源,推测该岩体岩浆可能来源于年轻的玄武质地壳,并有幔源物质的加入。综合本文资料及区域地质特征分析,阿尔泰造山带后碰撞时限可能为360~290Ma,即泥盆纪末-石炭纪末。     

大别造山带研子岗碱性岩体成因及其构造意义：锆石U-Pb年龄和地球化学制约

出露于大别造山带西南部的研子岗碱性杂岩体侵位于元古代和新太古代随县群中,本文采用锆石LA-ICPMS U-Pb定年方法,获得岩体的主体岩性角闪正长岩的岩浆锆石年龄为133± 1Ma,代表岩体的结晶年龄,这一年龄也是大别造山带中已知形成时代最早的早白垩世碱性岩体的结晶年龄（单颗粒锆石U-Pb法）。研子岗碱性杂岩体具有碱性岩典型的富碱（K₂O＋Na₂O＝8.38%~11.26%）、低硅（SiO₂＝63.41%~66.51%）的特点。主要矿物为微斜条纹长石,暗色矿物主要为镁角闪石。地球化学特征表明,全部岩石均具有高Ba-Sr花岗岩类高Ba（1230× 10^-6~4865× 10^-6）、高Sr（583× 10^-6~2088× 10^-6）和无负Eu异常（Eu/Eu^*＝0.97~1.12）等特征,并具有A型花岗岩的部分地球化学特征。岩石的Y/Nb比（0.46~1.09）较低,具洋岛玄武岩的部分地球化学特征,(⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) _i初始比值（0.70513~0.70543）较低,表明岩体的物源主要来源于幔源。Nd二阶段模式年龄(t_2DM=1859~1942Ma)和锆石Hf二阶段模式年龄(t_DM2=2130~2330Ma）较老,ε_Nd(133)值(-12.5~-11.4）和ε_Hf(133)值(-18.2~-15.4）较低。综合分析表明,岩体主要为古老的富集岩石圈地幔物质低程度部分熔融和随后地壳物质轻度AFC（混染和分离结晶作用）过程的产物,源岩熔融的热量主要来源于软流圈物质的上涌底侵作用提供。研子岗岩体形成于碰撞后构造环境,岩体的形成预示着大别造山带早白垩世造山过程的即将结束,板内时期的即将来临。     

新疆东天山葫芦岩体岩石学与地球化学研究

葫芦岩体位于康古尔—黄山韧性剪切带东段,地表出露面积0.75km²。主要岩石类型有辉长闪长岩、辉长岩、辉石岩、辉橄岩、橄揽岩。岩相之间多呈渐变过渡关系,局部也有侵入接触。主量元素化学组成基本上属拉斑玄武岩系列。岩石相对富集LREE、适度亏损高场强元素(Nb、Ta、Ti)。岩浆演化过程中发生了较弱的同化混染作用。橄榄石、斜方辉石、单斜辉石和斜长石的分离结晶作用是岩浆演化的主要机制。四件样品ε_Nd(t)值(＋6.4~+7.1),一件样品的ε_Sr(t)=+3.4,其余三件的ε_Sr(t)值(-10.1~-9.3),²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb(18.091~18.513)、²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb(15.459~15.528)、²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb(37.526~38.126)。元素地球化学和Nd、Sr、Pb同位素体系表明,源区软流圈来源的岩浆中混入了富集岩石圈地幔来源的岩浆。稀土元素地球化学证明,熔融作用发生于尖晶石稳定域内。由此可见,岩体是尖晶石稳定域内占主体的软流圈地幔与富集岩石圈地幔相互作用的结果。     

大别山地区鸡公山岩体锆石U-Pb年龄、Sr-Nd-Hf同位素特征及其地质意义

鸡公山花岗岩是桐柏-大别山造山带的一处重要岩基。为探讨鸡公山花岗岩的岩石成因和动力学背景,指导区域找矿,对鸡公山岩体开展了锆石U-Pb定年、岩石地球化学和Sr-Nd-Hf同位素研究。岩石地球化学分析结果显示,岩体具准铝质-弱过铝质花岗岩特征,属于高钾钙碱性系列;副矿物有少量角闪石,为分异I型花岗岩。锆石U-Pb定年测得岩体年龄值为141.8±0.8 Ma(n=26, MSWD=1.15),表明鸡公山岩体形成于早白垩世。全岩Sr同位素(⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)_i为0.707 75～0.708 18,εNd(t)值为-19.21～ -17.63,两阶段模式年龄为2.49~2.36 Ga。锆石¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf值为0.281 845～0.282 083,εHf(t)为-29.67～-21.31,两阶段模式年龄为3.07～2.54 Ga。Sr-Nd-Hf同位素特征暗示形成鸡公山岩体的岩浆可能是扬子板块中下地壳新太古代大别表壳岩物质重熔形成。岩体具较高的(La/Yb)_N、Sr/Y值,铕负异常不明显,与大别山埃达克型花岗岩特征类似,形成于构造伸展机制下,为尚未发生拆沉的加厚下地壳部分熔融产物。鸡公山岩体可能是岩体内伟晶岩脉的母体花岗岩。     

冈底斯岩浆弧曲水地区早中新世埃达克质花岗岩的成因及构造意义

青藏高原拉萨地体南部广泛发育的渐新世-中新世埃达克质岩浆岩,是研究冈底斯岩浆弧后碰撞岩浆活动和地壳演化的理想载体。本文对冈底斯弧中段曲水地区的早中新世黑云母花岗岩进行了岩石学、地球化学、锆石U-Pb年代学和Hf同位素研究。全岩地球化学分析结果显示黑云母花岗岩具有高的SiO₂、Al₂O₃和K₂O含量,属于中钾钙碱性、准铝质到弱过铝质岩石。微量元素富Sr,贫Y和Yb,富集轻稀土元素而强烈亏损重稀土元素,具有高的Sr/Y值(165~278)和(La/Yb)_N值(26.6~39.7),具有典型埃达克质岩石的地球化学特征。锆石U-Pb年代学分析结果表明花岗岩的结晶年龄为21~19 Ma,Hf同位素分析结果显示,岩浆锆石εHf(t)值(-0.9~+12.7)大部分为正值且具有较大的变化范围。根据Sr/Y和(La/Yb)_N值估算早中新世冈底斯弧的地壳厚度已达到70~80 km。综合本文和已有的数据表明,印度-亚洲大陆碰撞和碰撞后持续的汇聚作用以及大体积幔源岩浆的底侵共同导致冈底斯岩浆弧经历了显著的新生代地壳加厚;渐新世—早中新世,俯冲印度大陆板片的断离或加厚岩石圈地幔的拆沉作用引起软流圈地幔物质上涌,导致冈底斯弧加厚下地壳(新生地壳和古老地壳)发生强烈的部分熔融,形成了广泛分布的后碰撞埃达克质岩浆岩。     

源区组成与转熔矿物组合的选择性带入对花岗岩成分变化的影响:以南秦岭宁陕花岗岩体群为例

南秦岭构造带发育大规模早中生代花岗质岩体群,它们是研究源区组成和转熔矿物的选择性带入（PAE）对酸性侵入岩成分变化影响的理想对象。锆石U-Pb定年结果表明,宁陕花岗质岩体群可划分为2个期次：早期以懒板凳岩体（二长花岗岩）为代表,形成时代约为223~220Ma,对应于同碰撞阶段;晚期以胭脂坝和老城岩体（石英闪长岩-花岗闪长岩）为代表,形成时代约为211~196Ma,对应于后碰撞阶段。所有花岗质岩石样品具有SiO₂含量变化大且相对含量高的特点（SiO₂>68%）,同时Cr、Ni含量较低,这些特征指示了岩浆演化过程中未经历明显的壳幔混合作用。在F-An-Or图解中,宁陕花岗岩样品沿着岩浆分离结晶趋势线分布,且它们的Sr-Nd同位素（⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr_（t）=0.705348~0.705483;ε_Nd（t）值为-4.5~-4.7）组成较为均一,暗示其经历的同化混染作用较轻微。此外,元素协变图表明,宁陕花岗岩经历了角闪石+黑云母±斜长石的分离结晶。通过对比宁陕花岗岩与各种无水实验熔体,本文推测宁陕花岗岩的源区主要为杂砂岩和砂屑岩,而非玄武质地壳岩石。深成岩体的ε_Hf（t）值和二阶段Hf模式年龄表明其源区主要为中元古代地壳。主、微量元素（如Ti、Ca）与镁铁指数（摩尔Fe+Mg）的协变演化进一步表明,宁陕花岗岩是由含黑云母的砂屑岩（或杂砂岩）部分熔融形成,并伴随有单斜辉石、钛铁矿、锆石、磷灰石和榍石等转熔矿物组合的选择性带入。     

摩擦桩基桩土间极限摩阻力取值问题探讨

通过对广珠东线高速公路横沥大桥的试桩及土体的工程地质条件分析,总结出影响摩擦桩基桩土间极限摩阻力取值的一般问题以及解决问题的方法和措施。     

从榴辉岩与围岩的关系论苏鲁榴辉岩的形成与折返

位于华北和扬子两板块碰撞带中的苏鲁榴辉岩形成的温压条件不但是超高压，而且是高温。榴辉岩的PTt轨迹表明其为陆-陆磁撞俯冲带的产物。榴辉岩的区域性围岩花岗质片麻岩为新元古代同碰撞期花岗岩，榴辉岩及其他直接围岩皆呈包体存在于其中，并见新元古代花岗岩呈脉状侵入榴辉岩包体中。区域性围岩新元古代花岗岩的锆石中发现有柯石英、绿辉石等包裹体，表明新元古代花岗岩的组成物质也经受过超高压变质作用，且榴辉岩与围岩新元古代花岗岩的锆石U-Pb体系同位素年龄基本相同。但新元古代花岗岩所记录的变质作用和变形作用期次（或阶段）却少于榴辉岩。椐上述可得如下推断：超高压榴辉岩与新元古代花岗岩岩浆是同时在碰撞带底部（俯冲板块前部）形成的；榴辉岩的第一折返阶段是由新元古代花岗岩岩浆携带上升的，其第二折返阶段是和新元古代花岗岩一起由逆冲及区域性隆起而上升，遭受剥蚀。     

The Importance of the Precipitation and the Susceptibility of the Slopes for the Triggering of Landslides Along the Roads

In order to characterise the influence of the heavyrains on the observed landslides during the 1996–1997hydrological cycle, rainfall records for the last 100years are analysed from 104 stations in easternAndalusia. Regarding the amounts of rain recordedbetween October 1996 and March 1997 in the 104stations studied, 31 presented new all-time records;15 presented values that were 80–100% of thepre-1995 record; 49 stations, 80–50%; and 9stations, < 50%. A map has been devised of thesusceptibility of the materials through which thesouth-eastern Andalusian road network crosses,together with an inventory of the damage caused byinstability phenomena on banks and cuttings of theroad network during the winter of 1996–1997. Therelationships between the rainfall during the studyperiod, the damage caused to the road network and thesusceptibility of the materials affected are analysed.The results indicate that there is a clearcorrespondence between the rainfall recorded and thesusceptibility of the materials with the inventorieddamage. It is concluded that the widespread seriousdamage caused in early 1997 to the roads andsurrounding areas in the Alpujarra region and thecoast of the Province of Granada was mainly caused bythe extraordinarily heavy rains. However, considerablyless damage was observed where the susceptibility ofthe terrain is low, thus highlighting the extremeusefulness of terrain-susceptibility maps for riskprevention and territorial planning.     

某高速公路下伏煤矿采空区稳定性分析

在论述某高速公路下伏砦脖煤矿采空区地质、采矿和工程地质特征的基础上, 进行了稳定性数值模拟分析, 定性与定量地分析与评价了该煤矿采空区的地表变形特征及稳定性。研究结果表明: 该煤矿采空区的变形尚未完成, 对拟建的高速公路将产生很大的危害, 必须采取相应的工程治理措施。      

混凝剂处理钻井废泥浆液的研究

通过烧杯搅拌实验对混凝剂处理钻井废泥浆液进行研究,从混凝剂适应p H值范围、混凝效果、沉降速度三方面研究比较,找出一种较为理想的混凝剂,并分析了影响混凝剂性能的主要因素,确定了混凝剂的最佳投放剂量。      

黄河源区水环境变化及黄河出现冬季断流的原因

自1954年有水文观测资料以来，黄河曾在青海省玛多县黄河沿水文站发生过3次断流。本文在分析黄河源区水环境特征及其影响因素的基础上指出，鄂陵湖、扎陵湖的环湖融区调节能力低，当遇到连续干旱、冬季其调节水量不足以维系黄河径流时便会发生断流，这是断流的主因。湖水位降低、开采沙金、过度放牧等自然和人为因素也会对黄河发生断流产生影响。鄂陵湖口附近黄河上修建的水电站开始蓄水，提高了两湖及环湖融区的调节能力，今后黄河冬季出现断流的可能性将大为降低。     

Unity of the national and the international in the socio-cultural development of the peoples of the USSR

International unity is becoming ever stronger in this country owing to an increasing similarity in the development of the cultural environment. This comprises the provision of all the country's republics with a sufficient number of schools, theatres, and other institutions and cultural information media in accordance with the needs of the population. An important part is played by the rise in ‘the general educational level, as well as the level of professional qualifications and skills. Among all the Soviet nations and nationalities, this rise being more rapid among formerly backward peoples. Prominent among the factors of internationalization is the progressive development of the nationalities’ cultural resources, while professional culture is being increasingly brought within the reach of the masses.The implementation of the nationalities policy promotes the all-round development of all Soviet nations and nationalities, their drawing together, the upsurge of the individual capabilities of every Soviet citizen.     

Artemia in the Salt Lakes of Russia:the Productivity of Populations,the Reserves of the Cysts and the Fisheries

正Artemia cysts are an extremely important component of aquaculture diets.It is well established that the cultivation of fish and shellfish derive substantial health and growth advantages when Artemia are included in the diets of the     

天山南坡科其喀尔冰川表碛区小气候特征研究

利用天山南坡科其喀尔冰川3号观测站2009年全年的气象观测资料,分析研究了科其喀尔冰川表碛区的小气候特征. 结果表明：总辐射和净辐射夏秋季较高、冬春季较低;反射辐射和地表反照率反之. 与其他地区不同,该区主要受积雪物理性质和下垫面状况的影响,冬春季地表反照率日变化表现为由大到小的变化过程,夏秋季表现为倒U型. 温度年变化表现为夏秋季高、冬春季低,最高月均值出现在8月,为9.4℃,最低月均值出现在1月,为-9.6℃. 受山谷风和冰川风的影响,全年的风向以西北风和西北偏西风为主,风向的日变化以11：00为界发生转向. 受降水和冰川消融等的影响,比湿夏秋季月均值较大,冬春季月均值较小.     

Climate: Is the past the key to the future?

 The climate of the Holocene is not well suited to be the baseline for the climate of the planet. It is an interglacial, a state typical of only 10% of the past few million years. It is a time of relative sea-level stability after a rapid 130-m rise from the lowstand during the last glacial maximum. Physical geologic processes are operating at unusual rates and much of the geochemical system is not in a steady state. During most of the Phanerozoic there have been no continental ice sheets on the earth, and the planet’s meridional temperature gradient has been much less than it is presently. Major factors influencing climate are insolation, greenhouse gases, paleogeography, and vegetation; the first two are discussed in this paper. Changes in the earth’s orbital parameters affect the amount of radiation received from the sun at different latitudes over the course of the year. During the last climate cycle, the waxing and waning of the northern hemisphere continental ice sheets closely followed the changes in summer insolation at the latitude of the northern hemisphere polar circle. The overall intensity of insolation in the northern hemisphere is governed by the precession of the earth’s axis of rotation, and the precession and ellipticity of the earth’s orbit. At the polar circle a meridional minimum of summer insolation becomes alternately more and less pronounced as the obliquity of the earth’s axis of rotation changes. Feedback processes amplify the insolation signal. Greenhouse gases (H₂O, CO₂, CH₄, CFCs) modulate the insolation-driven climate. The atmospheric content of CO₂ during the last glacial maximum was approximately 30% less than during the present interglacial. A variety of possible causes for this change have been postulated. The present burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and cement manufacture since the beginning of the industrial revolution have added CO₂ to the atmosphere when its content due to glacial-interglacial variation was already at a maximum. Anthropogenic activity has increased the CO₂ content of the atmosphere to 130% of its previous Holocene level, probably higher than at any time during the past few million years. During the Late Cretaceous the atmospheric CO₂ content was probably about four times that of the present, the level to which it may rise at the end of the next century. The results of a Campanian (80 Ma) climate simulation suggest that the positive feedback between CO₂ and another important greenhouse gas, H₂O, raised the earth’s temperature to a level where latent heat transport became much more significant than it is presently, and operated efficiently at all latitudes. Atmospheric high- and low-pressure systems were as much the result of variations in the vapor content of the air as of temperature differences. In our present state of knowledge, future climate change is unpredictable because by adding CO₂ to the atmosphere we are forcing the climate toward a “greenhouse” mode when it is accustomed to moving between the glacial–interglacial “icehouse” states that reflect the waxing and waning of ice sheets. At the same time we are replacing freely transpiring C3 plants with water-conserving C4 plants, producing a global vegetation complex that has no past analog. The past climates of the earth cannot be used as a direct guide to what may occur in the future. To understand what may happen in the future we must learn about the first principles of physics and chemistry related to the earth’s system. The fundamental mechanisms of the climate system are best explored in simulations of the earth’s ancient extreme climates. Received: 7 November 1996/Accepted: 23 January 1997