北秦岭南台钼多金属矿床成岩成矿年龄及锆石Hf同位素组成

南台钼多金属矿床是北秦岭典型的斑岩-矽卡岩型矿床,矿区内出露的岩浆岩主要有花岗斑岩、石英斑岩脉和爆破角砾岩,花岗斑岩内及接触带发育斑岩型和矽卡岩型钼多金属矿化。锆石LA-ICPMS定年测得花岗斑岩的U-Pb年龄为(151±1)Ma(N=12,MSWD=0.32),矿区内6件辉钼矿的Re-Os同位素模式年龄介于(146±2)～(151±2)Ma,其加权平均年龄为(148.8±1.7)Ma(N=6,MSWD=0.84)。成岩年龄与成矿年龄在误差范围内基本一致,表明南台钼多金属矿床形成于晚侏罗世,与其以北的华北克拉通南缘的主要斑岩型钼矿床大规模成矿时间一致。该花岗斑岩的锆石Hf同位素组成显示:176Hf/177Hf初始比值介于0.281 864～0.282 454,εHf(t)=-28.8～-7.9,两阶段模式年龄TDM2为2 654～1 506 Ma,均变化于一个较宽的范围,表明花岗斑岩的源区物质具有多源的特征,其中以壳源组分为主,可能有少量幔源组分的混入,暗示了成矿物质也可能主要来源于地壳,但地幔组分对成矿也有贡献。     

粤东塌山斑岩型锡多金属矿床锆石及锡石U-Pb年代学、Hf同位素组成及其地质意义

陆河县塌山斑岩型锡多金属矿床位于粤东地区莲花山断裂带南西段,是粤东锡多金属成矿带内与花岗斑岩和石英斑岩密切相关的锡矿床,同时也是全国三个典型斑岩型锡矿之一。本文对与矿化有关的花岗斑岩进行了锆石U-Pb年代学和Hf同位素综合研究。LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年显示,花岗斑岩侵位年龄为136.8±1.1 Ma,是早白垩世岩浆作用产物。同时本文对锡石进行了U-Pb定年研究,27个数据在~(206)Pb/~(238)U-~(207)Pb/~(238)U谐和年龄图上获得了133.6±8.6 Ma的下交点年龄,在Tera-Wasserburg年龄图解上获得了136.5±8.1 Ma的下交点年龄,两年龄在误差范围内一致,且与花岗斑岩年龄一致,很好的限定了塌山矿区成矿时代。花岗斑岩锆石εHf(t)从-4.87变化到-2.07,二阶段模式年龄(t_(DM2))为1322～1507 Ma,表明其成岩物质主要来自中元古代地壳岩石,可能有少量地幔物质加入。     

豫西老庙沟斑岩-矽卡岩型钼矿床花岗斑岩脉成因、辉钼矿Re-Os年龄及其地质意义

豫西老庙沟斑岩-矽卡岩型钼矿床位于EW向马超营断裂带南侧,矿体赋存于花岗斑岩脉与中元古界官道口群杜关组白云岩的内外接触带附近。为了获得该钼矿床的成岩成矿年龄,对7件辉钼矿样品和1件花岗斑岩样品分别开展了Re-Os同位素测年和LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年,结果获得辉钼矿等时线年龄为151.6±5.1 Ma,加权平均年龄为151.9±0.9 Ma,LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb加权平均年龄为152.1±0.6 Ma,成岩成矿年龄一致。结合野外辉钼矿矿体与岩脉的产状关系,确定该岩脉为钼矿的成矿地质体。为了深入探讨成矿岩脉的岩石成因,对5件岩石样品开展了主、微量元素和全岩Sr-Nd同位素分析,以及锆石Hf同位素分析,结果表明花岗斑岩具有高Si、K的特征,为弱过铝质I型花岗岩;相对亏损P、Nb、Ta、Ti,指示其母岩浆经历了磷灰石和富Fe-Ti矿物相的分离结晶;其I_(Sr)=0.7067～0.7099,ε_(Nd)(t)=-20.6～-17.6,ε_(Hf)(t)主要集中于-26.9～-22.6,t_(DM2)(Nd)和锆石t_(DM2)(Hf)分别为2.37～2.61 Ga和2.62～2.88 Ga,与华北克拉通南缘太华岩群结晶基底年龄一致。综合老庙沟花岗斑岩脉的元素-同位素地球化学特征,作者认为老庙沟花岗斑岩脉及钼主要源于太华岩群的部分熔融,其形成的地球动力学背景为古太平洋板块向欧亚大陆俯冲的弧后伸展环境。     

长江中下游金牛盆地花岗斑岩和流纹斑岩的锆石U-Pb年龄、Hf同位素组成及其地质意义

金牛盆地位于鄂东南矿集区,是长江中下游成矿带重要的火山岩盆地之一.相对宁芜和庐枞盆地,金牛盆地找矿一直没有取得重大突破,对其中次火山岩的年代学、成因和成矿属性的研究也很少.本次选择盆地中心吴佰浩地区深部钻孔中的花岗斑岩和流纹斑岩,开展锆石U-Pb年龄和Hf同位素的研究工作,获得了流纹斑岩锆石206Pb/238U的加权平均年龄为128±1Ma (n=14,MSWD=2.5),锆石Hf同位素(176Hf/177Hf),和εHf(t)分别为0.28247～0.28262和-2.5～ -7.7;花岗斑岩锆石206 Pb/238U的加权平均年龄为129±1Ma (n=12,MSWD=1.3),锆石Hf同位素(176Hf/177Hf),和εHf(t)分别为0.28239～0.28259和-3.6～-10.7.本文确定金牛盆地中流纹斑岩和花岗斑岩的形成时代为129～128Ma,与金牛盆地火山岩的形成时代(130～125Ma)相当,暗示金牛盆地火山岩和次火山岩均形成于早白垩世,流纹斑岩和花岗斑岩是壳幔混合的产物.金牛盆地火山岩的形成时代与宁芜、、庐枞盆地相当,次火山岩的形成时代也与宁芜、庐枞盆地玢岩铁矿的成矿岩体相当.提出金牛盆地除应关注玢岩铁矿外,更应该关注与次火山岩有关的热液金矿.     

西藏朱诺斑岩铜 钼 金矿区侵入岩锆石U Pb年龄、Hf同位素组成及其成矿意义

朱诺斑岩铜钼金矿位于冈底斯成矿带南缘,是近年来在冈底斯斑岩铜矿带最西端新发现的另一大型斑岩型铜-钼-金矿床,但一直以来对该矿区花岗岩年代学及成因分析缺乏系统的研究。本文选择矿区内主要岩浆岩体开展LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年,Hf同位素研究。获得黑云母花岗闪长岩锆石U-Pb年龄为14.14±0.32Ma,76 Hf/177 Hf介于0.282484~0.282750,εHf(t)介于-9.87~-0.49,二阶段模式年龄TDMC介于1.13~1.73Ga、似斑状二长花岗岩锆石U-Pb年龄为14.05±0.31Ma,176 Hf/177 Hf介于0.282633~0.282769,εHf(t)介于-4.61~0.21,二阶段模式年龄TDMC介于1.08~1.39Ga之间;角闪闪长玢岩锆石U-Pb年龄为14.10±0.29Ma,除4.1号为继承锆石外,其余测点176 Hf/177 Hf介于0.282607~0.282761,εHf(t)介于-5.53~-0.07,二阶段模式年龄TDMC介于1.10~1.45Ga之间。年代学与Hf同位素结果表明,朱诺斑岩铜矿与斑岩铜矿带中段和东段成岩成矿时代一致,集中在15~13Ma之间,指示了冈底斯在中新世的构造岩浆活动事件。花岗岩Hf同位素组成明显与中-东段斑岩矿床不同,具有富集Hf同位素特征以及古老二阶段模式年龄(1.08~1.73Ga)等特点,反映出朱诺矿区中新世岩浆岩源区与中-东段中新世斑岩矿床明显不同,可能指示古老拉萨地体的印迹。     

广东省揭西县淘锡湖锡多金属矿床成矿花岗岩研究

广东省揭西县淘锡湖锡多金属矿床位于粤东地区莲花山断裂带南西段,为中型锡多金属矿床。文章以与矿化关系密切的花岗斑岩为研究对象,从花岗斑岩与成矿的物质来源、时空关系等方面进行系统研究。主量、微量元素、S同位素及锆石Hf同位素分析结果表明:花岗斑岩为该区成矿提供物质来源; 花岗斑岩LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄为141.8±1.0 Ma,表明其形成于早白垩世初期,与锡石毒砂共生的辉钼矿Re-Os同位素等时线年龄为139.0 ±1.1 Ma,与花岗斑岩的形成时间基本相同。结合矿区地质特征,认为花岗斑岩是淘锡湖锡多金属矿床最主要的成矿花岗岩。     

黄沙坪矿区花岗岩类的锆石U-Pb年龄、Hf同位素组成及其地质意义

黄沙坪矿床是湖南最大的铅锌矿床。矿区内岩浆活动复杂,矿化类型齐全,成矿元素多样,是湘南地区斑岩-矽卡岩-热液脉型Cu多金属与W-Sn多金属复合成矿作用的典型代表。为厘清区内不同花岗质岩石的时间格架、源区特征及其与成矿的关系,本次研究对黄沙坪矿区的不同类型花岗岩进行了系统的锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb定年和Hf同位素组成研究,研究表明,英安斑岩、二长花岗斑岩和石英斑岩的侵位年龄分别为158.5±0.9Ma、155.2±0.4Ma、160.8±1.0Ma,石英斑岩内花岗质岩石包体可能形成于220.4±1.2Ma。另外,在二长花岗斑岩锆石中发现古元古代-新太古代的继承锆石核。不同花岗质岩石中,中晚侏罗世锆石的εHf(t)值为-7.6～-3.2,Hf同位素两阶段模式年龄为1.7～1.4Ga,表明该区花岗质岩浆主要源自中元古代的古老基底物质部分熔融。继承锆石中接近0的εHf(t)负值(-1.5～-0.07)和εHf(t)正值(0.5～6.5)暗示形成这些古老继承锆石的初始物质中有幔源物质的加入。黄沙坪矿区不同类型花岗质岩石的锆石年龄和Hf同位素特征表明,英安斑岩、二长花岗斑岩、石英斑岩可能是同源同时期岩浆演化的产物,与矿床成矿年龄(154～159Ma)接近,反映其成岩成矿具有密切的时空联系。花岗岩中存在多组古老的残留锆石,暗示了黄沙坪地区自新太古代以来经历了复杂的岩浆作用,这可能是区内Cu-Pb-Zn-W-Mo-Fe多金属复合型矿床形成的关键要素。     

广东陶锡湖锡多金属矿床花岗斑岩锆石U-Pb年代学、地球化学、Hf同位素组成及其地质意义

陶锡湖锡多金属矿床是粤东锡多金属成矿带内一个与花岗斑岩有关的矿床。本文对与矿化有关的陶锡湖花岗斑岩进行了岩石地球化学、锆石U-Pb年代学和Hf同位素研究。LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年显示,花岗斑岩侵位年龄为141.8±1.0 Ma,是早白垩世岩浆作用的产物。岩石地球化学特征显示,花岗斑岩属于弱过铝质高钾钙碱性系列,强烈富集Rb、Th、U、K、Pb,亏损Ba、Sr、Ti、P、Nb、Ta,具有明显Eu负异常,属于高分异I型花岗岩。花岗斑岩成矿金属元素丰度值高,属于典型的含锡花岗岩。花岗斑岩锆石εHf(t)从-6.67变化到-2.32,二阶段模式年龄(tDM2)为1343~1615 Ma,表明其成岩物质主要来自古老地壳,可能有少量地幔物质的加入。根据所得地球化学和年代学数据,结合区域构造演化,陶锡湖花岗斑岩及相关的锡多金属矿床形成于古太平洋板块向欧亚大陆俯冲作用有关的区域伸展的动力学背景。     

青海加吾金矿床花岗斑岩脉锆石U-Pb年龄、Hf同位素特征及其地质意义

加吾金矿床大地构造上位于中央造山系"共和缺口"西缘,位于中央造山带多个块体交接转换的重要部位,其形成与区内印支期中酸性岩浆活动密切相关。对区内与金成矿关系密切的花岗斑岩脉中的锆石进行LA-ICP-MS U-Pb定年以及Lu-Hf同位素测试。测试结果显示,锆石206Pb/238 U加权平均年龄为233.4Ma±4.3Ma(MSWD=2.7),形成时代为中三叠世,与青海西秦岭地区其他印支中晚期中酸性岩浆岩形成时代相近;锆石εHf(t)值介于-12.35~-1.12之间,二阶段Hf模式年龄(tDM2)介于1.3Ga~2.0Ga之间,加吾金矿区内花岗斑岩的源区主要为早-中元古代地壳。相对较高的εHf(t)值的出现说明形成花岗斑岩脉的岩浆有一定幔源组分的加入。与加吾金矿成矿关系密切的花岗斑岩脉形成于陆-陆碰撞过程中挤压向伸展转换的地球动力学环境。由于俯冲陆壳板片断离,幔源岩浆上涌/底侵至下地壳底部,诱发增厚古老下地壳部分熔融产生壳-幔混合岩浆,在印支中期侵入到中下三叠统隆务河组地层中,为金矿的形成提供了热源和深部成矿流体。加吾金矿床成矿时代与花岗斑岩脉的成岩时间一致,即233.4 Ma±4.3 Ma。     

黑龙江省完达山地区河口林场斑岩型锡多金属矿床花岗斑岩的形成年代、岩石成因及构造背景

黑龙江省宝清县河口林场锡多金属矿床位于兴蒙造山带东段的完达山地体内,为东北地区东部首个斑岩型锡多金属矿床。该矿床锡、银、铅、锌的平均品位分别为0.27%、122.89g/t、0.84%、1.43%,其中锡、银资源量达到中型,铅锌可达小型矿床规模。锡多金属矿体与花岗斑岩体具有密切的空间和成因关系,多呈细脉状、网脉状产在花岗斑岩体内部及其与上三叠统大佳河组硅质岩的侵入接触带两侧。野外地质调查和室内研究表明,矿区内的含矿花岗斑岩为锡多金属矿化的成矿岩体。该花岗斑岩的LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄为118.0±1.1Ma,表明其形成于早白垩世晚期。岩石地球化学特征研究表明,花岗斑岩中SiO2、K2O含量高,Fe2OT3、MgO、CaO以及过渡族元素含量低,属高钾-中钾钙碱性系列的I型花岗岩。锆石ε_(Hf)(t)为+3.4～+7.4,二阶段Hf模式年龄(t_(DM2))为701～956Ma。花岗斑岩的铅同位素组成为~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb=18.414～18.460、207Pb/204Pb=15.591～15.596、208Pb/204Pb=38.470～38.761,具有造山带及与俯冲过程相关的性质;Sr初始值(87Sr/86Sr)i比值为0.708136～0.708331,εNd(t)值为-2.0～-3.0。根据岩石的元素地球化学和同位素地球化特征,判断河口林场含矿(成矿)花岗斑岩的初始岩浆源于基性新生下地壳物质的部分熔融,同时受到俯冲带浅部沉积物质的混染,结合区域构造演化资料分析认为,河口林场花岗斑岩及相关的斑岩型锡多金属矿化的构造背景可能与古太平洋板块向欧亚大陆板块的俯冲作用密切相关。     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians     

Pebbles,Shapes, and Equilibria

The shape of sedimentary particles may carry important information on their history. Current approaches to shape classification (e.g. the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system) rely on shape indices derived from the measurement of the three principal axes of the approximating tri-axial ellipsoid. While these systems have undoubtedly proved to be useful tools, their application inevitably requires tedious and ambiguous measurements, also classification involves the introduction of arbitrarily chosen constants. Here we propose an alternative classification system based on the (integer) number of static equilibria. The latter are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. As opposed to the Zingg system, our method relies on counting rather than measuring. We show that equilibria typically exist on two well-separated (micro and macro) scales. Equilibria can be readily counted by simple hand experiments, i.e. the new classification scheme is practically applicable. Based on statistical results from two different locations we demonstrate that pebbles are well mixed with respect to the new classes, i.e. the new classification is reliable and stable in that sense. We also show that the Zingg statistics can be extracted from the new statistics; however, substantial additional information is also available. From the practical point of view, E-classification is substantially faster than the Zingg method.