宜川-旬邑地区长8油层组储层特征与控制因素

宜川-旬邑地区上三叠统延长组长8油层组主要为三角洲前缘沉积环境,局部发育湖底滑塌扇体.岩心观察、薄片分析、扫描电镜及压汞测试表明,长8油层组主要为长石岩屑砂岩和岩屑长石砂岩,孔隙类型以残余原生粒间孔为主,次为长石溶孔,多为片状喉道和弯片状喉道,孔隙结构以小孔隙-微喉-细喉型与细孔隙-微喉-细喉型为主,储层非均质性强,水下分流河道、河口坝储层物性最好,分支水道最差,绿泥石环边胶结成岩相及石英次生加大胶结成岩相为有利成岩相,压实和胶结作用分别损失的孔隙度为25.65%和3.31%,溶蚀作用整体新增0.83%孔隙度,形成长8油层组目前低孔-超低孔致密砂岩储层.     

鄂尔多斯盆地旬邑地区长6_1储层物性影响因素

旬邑地区长61储层致密,研究程度低,勘探开发潜力大,为了对后续的勘探开发提供理论指导,通过铸体薄片、扫面电镜、高压压汞、X衍射、核磁共振等方法,利用大量样品的分析测试数据和叠合图像对旬邑地区长61储层砂岩物性特征及其影响因素进行了详细研究。结果表明:目的层长61储层砂岩岩性为以深灰色、灰色细-粉细粒为主的岩屑长石砂岩和长石岩屑砂岩,储集空间以溶蚀孔和残余粒间孔为主,孔隙类型以小孔隙为主,发育Ⅲ类储层,属于特低孔、超低渗油藏。沉积、成岩作用是影响储层物性的主要因素,河道砂为主力储集空间带,压实-压溶作用使得原始孔隙度减少32.4%,而胶结作用损失44%,建设性溶蚀作用增加面孔率0.26%。     

柴西南昆北油田切6区路乐河组储层孔隙结构及物性特征

路乐河组(E₁₊₂)是柴达木盆地昆北油田切6区主要含油气层系,储层特征(特别是孔隙结构和物性特征)认识不清严重阻碍了油田的开发。综合运用岩心、薄片、扫描电镜、压汞及实验测试等,对该区储层孔隙结构及物性特征进行研究,明确储层物性的控制因素。研究表明:路乐河组储层岩性以砾岩和砂岩为主,岩石类型主要为长石砂岩、长石岩屑砂岩,成分成熟度较低;储层孔隙类型包括原生孔隙、次生孔隙以及裂缝,以原生粒间孔为主,占总孔隙的70.3%;孔隙喉道形状主要为缩小型状和管束状,孔隙直径主要分布于20~40 μm,根据压汞曲线形态将孔隙结构分为4类,以Ⅱ类和Ⅲ类孔隙结构为主;路乐河组储层为特低孔低渗储层,孔渗相关性较好,储层物性受岩性、沉积相和成岩作用等综合控制。储层物性较好的岩性为不等粒砂岩和细砾岩,沉积微相为分流河道和河口坝,压实作用、胶结作用使储层物性变差,而溶蚀和破裂作用较好地改善了储层物性。     

文昌A凹陷珠海组低渗砂岩成岩特征与孔隙演化

基于薄片鉴定分析、扫描电镜、物性分析、X射线衍射分析、碳酸盐碳氧同位素分析等实验手段, 研究文昌A凹陷珠海组低渗砂岩储层岩石学特征和成岩作用特征, 通过定量化分析, 评价压实、胶结、溶蚀作用对储层孔隙演化的影响, 实现成岩相预测及储层分类评价.结果表明:（1）研究区珠三南断裂带以岩屑砂岩和长石岩屑砂岩为主, 中、粗砂岩含量高; 6号断裂带以长石岩屑砂岩和岩屑石英砂岩为主, 细砂岩含量高.储集空间以次生溶孔为主, 物性变化大, 纵向及平面均表现出明显的分带性.（2）机械压实造成珠海组原生粒间孔隙大量丧失; 含铁碳酸盐、自生伊利石、硅质胶结等使粒间孔进一步减少, 早期绿泥石则能抑制石英次生加大; 溶蚀作用使深部储层物性得以改善, 研究区珠海组发育两个次生溶蚀带.成岩相预测结果表明, 发育厚层粗粒级砂岩的水下分流河道是研究区的有利储集相带.（3）通过孔隙演化定量分析, 认为成岩作用对粗粒砂岩和细-中粒砂岩的孔隙度演化的影响具有差异性.      

志丹油田正356井区三叠系延长组长6储层特征研究

针对志丹油田正356井区长6油层段，对其储层岩石学、储层物性、孔隙结构及储层控制因素等进行了研究。该层段储层岩石类型主要为岩屑长石砂岩和长石砂岩，成分成熟度低，结构成熟度高；岩石物性总体较差，属低孔、低渗储层，发育粒间孔隙、溶蚀孔隙、晶间孔等孔隙类型，喉道以细喉-微喉为主；沉积作用发生后，成岩作用控制着储层孔隙结构特征及储层物性。根据岩性和物性特征，该区储集岩分为3类：Ⅰ类为好储集层，Ⅱ类为较好储集层，Ⅲ类为较差储集层。     

苏北盆地金湖凹陷古近系戴南组孔隙演化及次生孔隙成因分析

金湖凹陷戴南组储层总体为一套中低孔-中低渗碎屑储层,次生孔隙是本区最有效、最重要的孔隙类型,而搞清次生孔隙的分布规律及其成因成为下一步有利储层预测的关键。文中综合利用岩心、普通薄片、铸体薄片、扫描电镜及物性参数等资料,对戴南组储层的岩石类型、物性特征、孔隙类型及次生孔隙分布规律进行了综合分析,并从溶蚀作用的发育条件入手探讨了次生孔隙的成因,以期为下一步有利储层预测和勘探开发提供科学依据。研究认为,金湖凹陷戴南组碎屑岩储层主要发育于三角洲、扇三角洲和滨浅湖,受沉积相带控制,储层类型复杂,以不等粒砂岩、含砾不等粒砂岩、细砂岩及粉砂岩为主,不同地区岩性存在差异。根据岩性三角图,砂岩类型以长石岩屑质石英砂岩为主。砂岩成分成熟度中等偏低,结构成熟度中等。戴南组砂岩孔隙度峰值分布在12.0%~14.0%,渗透率峰值分布在1~10 mD。不同沉积环境和地区储层物性也存在一定差异。三角洲前缘亚相的储层物性最好,平均孔隙度约19.4%,平均渗透率约134.2 mD,岩性以细砂岩为主,主要分布于研究区西部和中部。扇三角洲物性次之,平均孔隙度约12.5%,平均渗透率约6.2 mD,岩性以含砾不等粒砂岩为主,位于桐城断裂带东南部便1井附近。滨浅湖亚相的储层物性最差,岩性以粉砂岩为主,平均孔隙度约8.3%,平均渗透率约2.3 mD。戴南组储层孔隙分为原生孔隙和次生孔隙两大类,以次生粒间溶蚀孔隙为主。溶蚀孔隙包括粒间溶孔、粒内溶孔和铸模孔。粒间溶孔多由粒间碳酸盐胶结物如方解石、白云石、铁方解石等溶蚀后形成,粒内溶孔主要是长石及碳酸盐岩屑被选择性溶解而形成,可见白云石晶粒溶解留下的铸模孔。戴南组储层中的原生孔隙相对较少,主要以石英次生加大后的残余粒间孔的形式存在,发育于埋藏较浅的井如新庄1井、关1-1井。戴南组储层孔隙经历了由原生到次生的演化过程。总体上,在浅于约1 100 m,储层主要处于早成岩A阶段,以原生孔隙为主。在1 100~1 500 m,储层处于早成岩B阶段,形成混合孔隙段。超过1 500 m,储层进入中成岩A阶段,原生孔隙消失殆尽,基本上以次生孔隙为主。戴南组储层存在3个次生孔隙发育带:第一次生孔隙发育带在1 200~1 600 m,分布于埋藏相对较浅-中等的井区;第二次生孔隙发育带分布在1 800~2 800 m;第三次生孔隙发育带在2 900~3 000 m左右。第一、二次生孔隙发育带次生孔隙的绝对值较大,说明溶蚀作用较强。戴南组储层次生孔隙发育与方解石、白云石胶结物的溶蚀及长石碎屑和碳酸盐岩岩屑的溶蚀有关。烃源岩成熟排烃是次生孔隙发育的主控因素;碳酸盐胶结物发育提供了次生孔隙发育的物质基础;长石的溶蚀对次生孔隙发育有一定的贡献;次生孔隙的形成与黏土矿物的相互转化有一定的关系;断裂活动进一步促使了次生孔隙的发育。     

辽河西部凹陷西斜坡沙四段储层特征及成岩作用对其影响

通过对岩石薄片及铸体薄片的观察和分析,结合大量物性及压汞分析资料,对辽河西部凹陷西斜坡沙四段砂岩储层的岩石学特征、成岩作用及储层物性特点进行了研究。结果表明,研究区岩石类型以长石岩屑砂岩和岩屑砂岩为主,常见压实、胶结、交代、溶蚀、蚀变等成岩作用类型;常见孔隙类型有原生粒间孔、粒间溶孔、粒内溶孔等,其中粒间扩大孔隙最常见;孔隙结构主要为细-中孔细喉型,储层类型主要为中孔低-中渗型,储层物性较好。主要分析了成岩作用对储层发育的影响,压实和胶结作用对储层具有破坏性作用,溶蚀作用对改善储层物性具有建设性作用。溶蚀作用形成的粒间溶孔、粒内溶孔、粒间扩大孔及超大孔隙对储层的贡献最大,形成了中-粗孔、中-高渗型优质储层。900~1 900 m和2 300~2 900 m深度段为孔隙度和渗透率异常带,带内溶蚀作用发育,在其中寻找有利的储层应当成为下一步勘探的重点目标。     

鄂尔多斯盆地镇泾区块延长组长8油层组砂岩储层特征

延长组长8 油层组是鄂尔多斯盆地镇泾区块的主力油层之一,岩性以岩屑长石砂岩和长石岩屑砂岩为主,为典型的 特低孔特低渗储层。储集空间以次生溶蚀粒间孔为主,喉道以缩颈型、片状和弯片状为主,孔喉结构发育3 种类型,以II 型为主。长8 砂岩储层特征主要受沉积作用、成岩作用、裂缝发育程度和油气充注4 个因素控制。最有利于储层发育的沉积 微相为水下分流河道,且中砂岩的储集物性好于细砂岩,富含石英、长石和变质岩岩屑的砂岩的储集物性好于火成岩岩屑、 沉积岩岩屑和云母含量高的砂岩。成岩作用对储集物性的影响具有双重性,建设性成岩作用包括溶解和孔隙衬里绿泥石胶 结作用2 种,两者均很发育的层段是油气储集的最有利地带;破坏性成岩作用主要包括机械压实作用和晚期亮晶方解石胶 结作用。裂缝以白垩纪末- 古近纪的构造裂缝为主,其使长8 储层渗透率急剧增大,储层非均值性增强。油气充注对储集 物性的影响主要表现为促进溶解作用的发生以及次生孔隙的形成和保存。     

山东东营凹陷东部深层浊积扇储层的微观特征及影响因素

东营凹陷东部深层浊积砂体以三角洲前缘的滑塌浊积砂体为主,储层岩性以长石细砂岩、岩屑细砂岩及粉砂岩为主,结构成熟度及成分成熟度均较低。储层微观特征研究表明,浊积砂体中主要发育剩余原生粒间孔、粘土矿物杂基内的微孔隙、粒间溶孔、粒内溶孔及微裂缝等储集空间类型;孔隙结构以低渗细喉型为主,为物性较差的中低孔、低渗型储层。通过对储层物性影响因素的研究得出,岩石组构、沉积微相、成岩作用和异常超压的形成与分布是影响本区浊积砂体储层物性的主要因素。其中成岩作用对浊积砂体物性的改造明显,压实和胶结作用是导致储层物性变差的主要原因;而溶蚀作用和成岩收缩作用则有利于储层孔渗性的改善。异常超压系统的存在、高的地温场及烃类的早期注入对该区浊积砂体储层物性起到了良好的保存和改善作用。     

鄂尔多斯盆地华庆地区延长组长6油层组储层特征

通过对华庆地区长6段岩心铸体薄片及物性资料分析,研究了其岩石学特征、孔隙类型、微观孔隙结构特征、孔渗特征及成岩作用。认为研究区长6储层发育三角洲前缘及深水浊积扇沉积,三角洲前缘水下分流河道和上扇主沟道是储层分布的主要相带,主要发育细粒岩屑长石砂岩及长石砂岩、长石岩屑砂岩;粒间孔及长石溶孔是主要储集空间。孔喉分布表现为小孔微细喉,非均质性强;孔隙度平均为9.5%,渗透率平均为0.38×10-3μm2,为一套低孔低渗-特低渗储层。研究区砂岩埋藏后经历的成岩作用主要有压实作用、胶结作用及溶蚀作用。强烈的压实作用、胶结作用是使孔隙大量消失、物性变差的主要原因;而溶蚀作用,特别是长石、岩屑及浊沸石溶孔在很大程度上改善了储层的储集性能。     

深港西部通道填海区地下水铜、钒、铊、镉、钨迁移的实验研究

填海工程使滨海地区的地下水物理化学条件改变,导致该区域地下水中重金属浓度升高。本文以深港西部通道填海区为例,采用实验室模拟填海条件的办法,初步探讨了影响填海区地下水重金属迁移的关键因素。模拟实验结果表明,填海区地下水中钨元素含量升高与地下水淡化、淤泥氧化过程以及填料风化有关;铜元素含量升高则与淤泥氧化过程以及填料风化有关;钒元素含量升高与地下水淡化和淤泥氧化过程有关,而其他元素含量升高则主要与填料风化释放有关。     

新疆阿图什市木吉地区木吉群孢粉化石的发现

新疆维吾尔自治区阿图什市木吉地区邻近帕米尔,是印度板块与欧亚板块碰撞挤压应力最集中的地区,地层变质和变形强烈,研究基础薄弱。木吉群由变质砂岩、板岩、千枚岩、石英岩、钙质石英岩、变粒岩、二云石英片岩、大理岩等组成,一直未发现任何化石。最近,笔者在木吉乡的喀拉足克沟和阿拉木陶沟的粉砂岩、钙质粉砂岩中发现了一些植物管胞片和孢粉化石:Gran-ulatisporites sp.,Cycloranisporites sp.,Verrucosisporites sp.,Pityosporites sp.,Punetatosporites sp.,Leiotriletes sp.,Apicu-latisporites sp.,Platysaccus sp.,Cycodopites sp.等。从地层接触关系和孢粉化石的整体面貌看,木吉地区含上述孢粉化石的木吉群的时代可能为泥盆纪—石炭纪。     

西藏措勤县雄玛地区始新统林子宗群帕那组 火山岩地球化学特征及构造背景

西藏措勤县雄玛地区林子宗群帕那组火山岩大地构造位置位于冈底斯—念青唐古拉山板片,地层分区上属于冈底斯地层区、隆格尔—南木林地层分区。岩性主要为一套以浅灰色、灰绿色流纹质凝灰岩为主,夹浅黄绿色、灰绿色流纹岩及英安岩、火山角砾岩、杂砂岩及砾岩的岩石组合。之下与永珠组和拉嘎组呈喷发不整合接触。岩石地球化学特征表明该火山岩系属过铝质的高钾钙碱性—亚碱性系列,稀土元素地球化学中轻稀土元素明显富集,微量元素中大离子亲石元素(Rb、K、Th、U、LREE)富集,高场强元素(Nb、P、Ti)亏损。以上特征说明雄玛地区林子宗群帕那组火山岩岩浆源于陆壳重熔,属与俯冲造山有关的陆相火山岩,同时又兼具陆—陆碰撞的特点。推测帕那组火山岩形成于新特提斯洋壳俯冲基本结束,印度板块与欧亚板块碰撞开始的构造背景下,年龄大概在38Ma左右,为始新世晚期。     

Breakthroughs in the biodiversity, biogeography, biostratigraphy, and basin analysis of the Beaufort group

Over the past decade researchers working on the rocks of the Beaufort Group in the main Karoo Basin of South Africa have vastly increased our understanding of this important Permo-Triassic sequence. Many new fossil forms have been discovered, allowing for breakthroughs into the biodiversity, biogeography and biostratigraphy of the group. Taxonomic and phylogenetic advances are many and varied, and cover most of the vertebrate taxa, but with emphasis placed on the temnospondyl amphibians, archosauriforms and non-mammalian synapsids, in particular the anomodontia. Biostratigraphic breakthroughs have centered on the Middle Permian Eodicynodon and Tapinocephalus assemblage zones, the Late Permian Dicynodon Assemblage Zone, and the Triassic Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus assemblage zones. Correlation of these biozones with better dated sequences in Europe, Russia and China has allowed for many chronostratigraphic refinements, which are in turn vital for sequence stratigraphical analysis of the basin fill. Based on fossil data, both the lower (Ecca–Beaufort) and upper (Beaufort–Molteno) contacts of the group have been proved to be highly diachronous. The refined chronostratigraphic framework has also allowed for a better analysis of the basin evolution through time, particularly in terms of the correlation of external stimuli that affect basin sedimentation patterns.     

藏北羌塘丁固—加措地区康托组的时代

自西藏区域地质调查大队创建康托组以来,康托组岩石地层单位广泛应用于羌塘地区,普遍认为其时代为新近纪.笔者于丁固-加措地区的康托组地层中采获古近纪轮藻化石Obtusocharat sp.,O.lanpingenis,Gyrogona qinajiangica和部分孢粉化石,并在康托组底部安山岩中获K-Ar年龄65.1～66.5Ma.上述轮藻组合与同位素年龄指示的地层时代为古新世-始新世,据此将测区康托组的时代确定为古近纪.由于测区康托组之上被唢纳湖组或鱼鳞山组角度不整合覆盖,因此康托组时代的确定不仅进一步完善了测区新生代地层系统,还指示测区在康托组与唢纳湖组或鱼鳞山组之间发生了一次强烈的构造运动.     

Metasomatic effects in the Faraday Metagabbro,Bancroft, Ontario,Canada

Summary The Middle Proterozoic Faraday Metagabbro in the Bancroft area of eastern Ontario has been subjected to syn-orogenic textural and mineralogical modifications resulting in the formation of scapolite-bearing metagabbro and gabbroic blastomylonite assemblages. The elemental flux during cryptic and overt scapolitization has been calculated usingGresens general metasomatic equation which applies corrections for density and volume changes during alteration. Metasomatic variation diagrams using analyses from two primary gabbros and six altered rocks indicate that Na, K, Cl, Li, Rb, and Ba are the principal introduced elements and that Cu and S were removed. These changes are very similar to those involved in the formation of metasomatic nepheline-bearing rocks elsewhere in the district and, furthermore, nephelinization and scapolitization were broadly coincident in time and space. It is concluded that the nephelin- and scapolite-bearing rocks and their cryptic facies are different manifestations of the same metasomatic agent and that the source of the fluids was a possible horizon of evaporitic sediments within the country rocks in which the gabbro was emplaced.

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Metasomatose im Faraday-Metagabbro, Bancroft, Ontario, Kanada

Zusammenfassung Der Mittel-proterozoische Faraday-Gabbro in der Umgebung von Bancroft (Ost-Ontario) erfuhr synorogene Veränderungen in Textur und Mineralogie, die zur Bildung skapolit-haltiger Metagabbros und gabbroider Blastomylonite führten. Die während kryptischer und offener Skapolitisierung stattfindende Elementtransport wurde mit Hilfe der vonGresens entwickelten generellen metasomatischen Gleichung errechnet; Korrekturen für Varänderungen in spezifischer Dichte und Volumen wurden angebracht. Metasomatische Variationsdiagramme basierend auf Analysen an zwei primären Gabbros und sechs modifizierten Gesteinen zeigen, daß Na, K, Cl, Li, Rb und Ba die hauptsächlich zugeführten Elemente darstellen, und daß Cu-und S-Konzentrationen abgebaut wurden. Diese Veränderungen sind vergleichbar mit solchen, wie sie bei der Bildung metasomatischer, Nephelin-haltiger Gesteine erkannt wurden. Außerdem fallen Nephelinisierung und Skapolitisierung zeitlich und räumlich in etwa zusammen. Daraus kann geschlossen werden, daß Nephelin- und Skapolit-haltige Gesteine und deren kryptische Phasen durch den gleichen metasomatischen Prozeß entstanden sind, und daß die Herkunft der umwandelnden Lösungen möglicherweise in evaporitischen Sedimenten zu suchen ist, in die der Gabbro intrudierte.

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With 3 Figures     

Modeling runoff and soil erosion in a catchment area, using the GIS, in the Himalayan region, India

Remote sensing data and GIS techniques have been used to compute runoff and soil erosion in the catchment area along the NH-1A between Udhampur and Kud covering an area of approximately 181 km². Different thematic layers, for example lithology, a landuse and landcover map, geomorphology, a slope map, and a soil-texture map, were generated from these input data. By use of the US Soil Conservation Service curve number method, estimated runoff potential was classified into five levels—very low, low, moderate, high, and very high. Data integration was performed by use of the weighting rating technique, a conventional qualitative method, to give a runoff potential index value. The runoff potential index values were used to delineate the runoff potential zones, namely low, moderate, high, and very high. Annual spatial soil loss estimation was computed using the Morgan–Morgan–Finney mathematical model in conjunction with remote sensing data and GIS techniques. Greater soil erosion was found to occur in the northwestern part of the catchment area. When average soil loss from the catchment area was calculated it was found that a maximum average soil loss of more than 20 t ha⁻¹ occurred in 31 km² of the catchment area.     

Geochronology of the Dovyren intrusive complex, northwestern Baikal area, Russia, in the Neoproterozoic

The paper reports newly obtained data on the geochronology of the Dovyren intrusive complex and associated metarhyolites of the Inyaptuk Formation in the Synnyr Range. The data were obtained by local LA-ICPMS analysis of zircons in samples. The U-Pb age of olivine-free gabbronorite from near the roof of the Yoko-Dovyren Massif is 730 ± 6 Ma (MSWD = 1.7, n = 33, three samples) is close to the estimated age of 731 ± 4 Ma (MSWD = 1.3, n = 56, five samples) of a 200-m-thick sill beneath the pluton. These data overlap the age of recrystallized hornfels found within the massif (“charnockitoid”, 723 ± 7 Ma, MSWD = 0.12, n = 10) and a dike of sulfidated gabbronorite below the bottom of the massif (725 ± 8 Ma, MSWD = 2.0, n = 15). The estimates are also consistent with the age of albite hornfels (721 ± 6 Ma, MSWD = 0.78, n = 12), which was produced in a low-temperature contact metamorphic facies of the host rocks. The average age of the Dovyren Complex is 728.4 ± 3.4 Ma (MSWD = 1.8, n = 99) based on data on the sill, near-roof gabbronorite, and “charnockitoid”) and is roughly 55 Ma older than the estimate of 673 ± 22 Ma (Sm-Nd; [13]). The U-Pb system of zircon in two quartz metaporphyre samples from the bottom portion of the Inyaptuk volcanic formation in the northeastern part of the Yoko-Dovyren Massif turns out to be disturbed. The scatter of the data points can be explained by the effect of two discrete events. The age of the first zircon population is then 729 ± 14 Ma (MSWD = 0.74, n = 8), and that of the second population is 667 ± 14 Ma (MSWD = 1.9, n = 13). The older value pertains to intrusive rocks of Dovyren, and the age of the “rejuvenated” zircon grains corresponds to the hydrothermal-metasomatic processes, which affected the whole volcano-plutonic sequence and involved the serpentinization of the hyperbasites. This is validated by the results of Rb-Sr isotopic studies with the partial acid leaching of two serpentinized peridotite samples from the Verblyud Sill. These studies date the overprinted processes at 659 ± 5 Ma (MSWD = 1.3, n = 3).     

Sedimentary structures in the Lower Greensand of the Weald,England, and Bas-Boulonnais,France

Study of the cross-stratification and other sedimentary structures in the Lower Greensand of the Weald, England, and Bas-Boulonnais, France, indicates that the sediments were deposited by the lateral migration of sand waves in a neritic sea. Comparison of the Lower Greensand sea with the modern North Sea was attempted. If those sediments were deposited as a result of tidal current similar to the present-day North Sea then the Lower Greensand shoreline could be deduced as running northwest-southeast, indication that the western part of the London Platform was submerged.     

Sedimentology in metamorphic rocks,the Willyama Supergroup,Broken Hill,Australia

In the upper greenschist to granulite grade rocks of the Willyama Supergroup at Broken Hill, Australia, earlier recognition of metamorphosed graded bedding in siliciclastic metasedimentary rocks led to interpretations of these rocks as deep-water turbidites. However, graded beds can also be deposited in shelfal environments below storm wave base. This study identified other tempestite features including wave oscillation ripples, hummocky cross-stratification and swaley cross-stratification indicating that deposition took place above the wave base of the larger storms.

Albitised metasedimentary rocks of the upper Thackaringa Group show structures such as swaley cross-stratification typical of shallow-water conditions above fair-weather wave base. Deposition of the Broken Hill Group commenced with muddy Allendale Metasediments conformable on the Thackaringa Group. The Ettlewood Calc-Silicate Member, originally a dolomitic, siliceous sediment, is interpreted as coastal sabkha indicating onset of a marine transgression. The Parnell Gneiss represents a volcanic or volcaniclastic interruption, heralding gradually increasing input of sand in the Freyers Metasediments reaching a maximum in middle Freyers Metasediments, followed by an abrupt reversion to mud, still influenced by wave action. An open marine shelf is interpreted, possibly 30 m deep (no more than 100 m) in the final stage of a developing rift. The Broken Hill Group terminated with the massive Hores Gneiss volcanic unit.

Sedimentation of the siliciclastic Sundown Group took place in similar conditions, commencing with a muddy interval overlying the Hores Gneiss. The shallowing produced by ～90 m thickness of volcanic/volcaniclastic Hores Gneiss was compensated by subsidence.

Paragon Group deposition commenced with substantial black mud, resulting from isolation from the sand supply and probably isolation from the sea. A fresh connection to the sea led first to the deposition of dolomitic carbonate (King Gunnia Calc-Silicate Member), then to deposition of parallel-laminated fine sand below wave base (upper Cartwrights Creek Metasediments), followed by ripple cross-laminated sand above wave base (Bijerkerno Metasediments). The Dalnit Bore Metasediments show abundant very thin graded silt–mud units possibly deposited below storm wave base, and thicker units of stacked wave oscillation ripples deposited above the wave base of larger storms.

The Broken Hill orebody is hosted by altered Broken Hill Group metasedimentary rocks deposited at water depths of ～30 m. Unless the ore fluid temperature was less than 150°C, it is likely that the orebody formed below the seafloor: at such shallow-water depths, the confining pressure would be inadequate to suppress boiling of hotter rising hydrothermal fluids.