Osmotic Swelling and Osmotic Consolidation Behaviour of Compacted Expansive Clay

Compacted clay soils are used as barriers in geoenvironmental engineering applications and are likely to be exposed to salinization and desalinization cycles during life of the facility. Changes in pore fluid composition from salinization and desalinization cycles induce osmotic suction gradients between soil–water and reservoir (example, landfill/brine pond) solution. Dissipation of osmotic suction gradients may induce osmotic swelling and consolidation strains. This paper examines the osmotic swelling and consolidation behaviour of compacted clays exposed to salinization and desalinization cycles at consolidation pressure of 200 kPa in oedometer assemblies. During salinization cycle, sodium ions of reservoir fluid replaced the divalent exchangeable cations. The osmotic swelling strain developed during first desalinization cycle was 29-fold higher than matric suction induced swelling strain of the compacted specimen. Further, the diffusion controlled osmotic swelling strain was 100-fold slower than matric suction-driven swelling process. After establishment of ion-exchange equilibrium, saturated saline specimens develop reversible osmotic swelling strains on exposure to desalinization cycles. Likewise the saturated desalinated specimen develops reversible osmotic consolidation strains on exposure to cycles of salinization. Variations in compaction dry density has a bearing on the osmotic swelling and consolidation strains, while, compaction water content had no bearing on the osmotic volumetric strains.     

Hydromechanical behaviour of a compacted swelling soil over a wide suction range

A study of the hydromechanical behaviour of a compacted swelling material in the range of suctions comprised between 0 and 40 MPa was performed. This study has required the development of two kinds of suction controlled oedometer devices based on two different suction control techniques. In the range of suctions higher than 8.5 MPa, the saturated salt solutions method was used and a new oedometer using this suction control technique was developed. For suctions lower than 8.5 MPa an osmotic oedometer was used. Despite the differences between the applied suction components (matric and total), the correlation between the two methods was verified for the tested material. The second part of the paper presents a set of oedometer tests conducted under various suctions. The effect of the applied suction on the hydromechanical parameters was studied. First, two swelling phases were highlighted: a low swelling phase above a suction of 4 MPa and a high swelling one below this value. These phases were considered as being related to the microstructure of compacted swelling clays. Secondly, it was shown that the slopes of the elastic part and of the plastic part of the consolidation curves were not influenced significantly by the applied suctions. In opposition, the preconsolidation pressure is affected by the decrease of the applied suctions even in the low swelling phase. Such a behaviour could be explained by the effects of wetting on the microstructure.     

A water retention model accounting for void ratio changes in double porosity clays

This paper presents a constitutive model that predicts the water retention behaviour of compacted clays with evolving bimodal pore size distributions. In line with previous research, the model differentiates between the water present inside the saturated pores of the clay aggregates (the microstructure) and the water present inside the pores between clay aggregates (the macrostructure). A new formulation is then introduced to account for the effect of the macrostructural porosity changes on the retention behaviour of the soil, which results in a consistent evolution of the air-entry value of suction with volumetric deformations. Data from wetting tests on three different active clays (i.e. MX-80 bentonite, FEBEX bentonite, and Boom clay), subjected to distinct mechanical restraints, were used to formulate, calibrate, and validate the proposed model. Results from free swelling tests were also modelled by using both the proposed double porosity model and a published single porosity model, which confirmed the improvement in the predictions of degree of saturation by the present approach. The proposed retention model might be applied, for example, to the simulation of the hydromechanical behaviour of engineered bentonite barriers in underground nuclear waste repositories, where compacted active clays are subjected to changes of both suction and porosity structure under restrained volume conditions.

     

Swelling pressure–suction relationship of heavily compacted bentonite–sand mixtures

This paper presents results of an experimental work to determine a relationship between swelling pressure and suction of heavily compacted bentonite–sand mixtures. For comparison, tests were also carried out on heavily compacted bentonite specimens. A series of swelling pressure tests were performed using multi-step constant-volume method where suction of the specimens tested was reduced in a stepwise manner toward a zero value. The suction reduction was induced using vapor equilibrium and axis-translation techniques. It is shown that compacted specimens did not exhibit any collapse upon suction decrease and exhibited maximum swelling pressures at zero-equilibrium suction. The development of swelling pressure with decreasing suction of the specimens showed threshold suctions below which a further reduction in suction yields an increase in the swelling pressure of the same magnitude. The magnitude of threshold suction was found to be a function of bentonite content in compacted specimens.     

Influence of suction cycles on the soil fabric of compacted swelling soil

The soil fabric plays an important role in complex hydromechanical behaviour of the expansive soils. This article addresses the influence of the wetting and drying paths on the soil fabric of compacted bentonite and silt mixtures at two different initial dry densities corresponding to loose and dense states. To obtain the hydric response of the soil, two suction imposition techniques were used: osmotic technique for the suction range less than 8.5 MPa and the vapour equilibrium or the salt solution technique for the suction range between 8.5 and 287.9 MPa. Additionally, the soil fabric analysis was performed using mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) and nitrogen gas adsorption (BET) techniques. The dense samples produced cumulative swelling strains during the suction cycles, while shrinkage was observed for the loose samples. The suction cycles induced an equilibrium state indicative of the elastic behaviour of the samples. The soil fabric analysis showed that regardless of the soil's initial state (loose or dense), the samples obtained the same soil fabric at the equilibrium state. The experimental results illustrated also the existence of an elastic void ratio (e_0el) where the compacted soils at this state present an elastic hydric behaviour during the successive suction cycles.     

NaCl溶液饱和膨胀土的压缩特性及其微观机制

孔隙溶液浓度及组份改变会影响膨胀土颗粒间作用力,改变微观孔隙结构,从而影响土体的物理力学特性。为此,以宁明膨胀土为研究对象,采用不同浓度NaCl溶液制备泥浆预固结重塑样开展一维压缩试验和压汞试验,研究化学作用对重塑天然膨胀土的压缩性和微观孔隙结构的影响规律。结果表明：随着渗透吸力增加,颗粒间水化能力降低,物理化学力使土颗粒由分散状态转变为集聚体状态,形成了集聚体内孔和集聚体间孔,土体表现出双峰孔隙分布特征。预固结样（压力为20 kPa）的初始孔隙比随渗透吸力增加而减小,进而导致固结屈服应力增加;但是渗透吸力对压缩性影响不大,压缩指数和回弹指数基本不变。此外,利用固结系数计算了土体的渗透系数,随着竖向压力增加渗透系数降低;当竖向压力小于200 kPa时,随着渗透吸力增加,渗透系数先增加后减小,但是竖向压力超过200 kPa后,渗透系数变化不大。分析发现,渗透吸力增加导致大孔隙增加,渗透系数增加,但同时密实度增加会导致渗透系数降低,低竖向压力下渗透性受密实度和微观孔隙结构变化耦合作用控制。     

Swell pressure prediction by suction methods

Soil suction is the most relevant soil parameter for characterization of the swell behavior. An attempt was made to predict swell pressures from soil suction measurements. In this study, Na-bentonite was mixed with kaolinite in the ratios of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% of dry kaolinite weight to obtain soils in a wide range of plasticity indices (i.e. 30, 50, 68, 84 and 97%). Suction measurements using thermocouple psychrometer technique were made on statically compacted specimens. The dependence of soil suction on water content, dry density and bentonite content was examined. Soil suction was correlated to the soil properties, namely, water content, plasticity index, dry density, cation exchange capacity and specific surface area using multiple regression analyses. The correlations revealed a simple regression equation for a quick prediction of soil suctions from easily determined soil properties. In order to investigate soil suction versus swell pressure behavior, the results of standard constant volume swell tests (ASTM, 1990) performed on statically compacted samples of these clay mixtures were used. A linear relationship was established between the logarithm soil suction and the swell pressure. It was also found that an experimental relationship which would directly relate the initial soil suction to the swell pressure can be established.     

盐溶液的渗透吸力计算方法

膨润土垫层在高放废料处置库环境中与围岩接触,力学性能会受到围岩裂隙中所含盐溶液的影响。盐溶液的渗透吸力会在膨润土上产生类似于竖向荷载作用的附加应力,量化盐溶液对膨润土力学性能的影响对评估地下处置库的安全性具有重要意义。溶液渗透吸力系数作为计算渗透吸力的关键,目前需要通过较为复杂的实验测得,对工程实际应用造成了阻碍。通过引入Debye-Hückel公式,提出含单价离子电解质、2-2型电解质及混合电解质溶液的渗透吸力系数及渗透吸力的计算方法。基于Debye-Hückel公式,分析溶剂种类和温度对渗透吸力系数的影响,结果表明:溶剂极性越大,渗透吸力系数越大;温度越高,渗透吸力系数越小。      

A method for predicting swelling pressure of compacted bentonites

An approach for predicting swelling pressure of bentonites based on thermodynamic relationships between swelling pressure and suction is presented in this paper. The proposed method requires sorption isotherm data of the bentonites. A series of swelling pressure tests were performed on compacted specimens of bentonite-sand mixtures with different bentonite contents, water contents, and dry densities. The sorption isotherm of the pure bentonite was measured using a chilled-mirror hygrometer. It is found that the method works well for the bentonite-sand mixtures tested. Several published data on bentonites that have been proposed to be used as buffer and sealing material for nuclear waste repository were collected and used to verify the method. The proposed method is found to be also applicable for other bentonites of different types and therefore, can be used to predict swelling pressure of bentonites.     

集成回填材料的土水特征曲线测定

以膨润土为基材,添加沸石、黄铁矿制备高压实集成回填材料,采用渗析法和汽相法分别测得其在不同温度及自由、侧限条件下的土水特征曲线( SWCC),并采用SWCC模型对实验数据进行拟合.结果表明:低吸力范围内,施加相同的初始吸力,最终测得50℃试样含水率＞20℃对应含水率,原因是温度影响渗析法所测吸力值及试样饱和后的微观结构;高吸力范围内,同一吸力值80℃对应的含水率最小,土水特征曲线斜率随温度升高而增大.应力状态对土水特征曲线的影响,在低吸力范围内显著,而高吸力范围内则影响不大.这与材料的微观结构有关.Van Genuehten模型对实测数据的拟合效果最佳.     

压实膨润土在盐溶液中的膨胀变形特性

采用蒸馏水以及浓度不同的NaCl溶液作为浸泡溶液,对商用膨润土进行了膨胀变形试验。结果表明在相同的荷载作用下,膨胀变形随浸泡溶液浓度的增加而减小。这是因为浸泡溶液的浓度越大,溶液的渗透吸力也越大,渗透吸力的增加将引起施加在黏土颗粒上有效应力的增加,使得在外部施加荷载相同时膨润土的膨胀变形随溶液浓度的增加而减小。当压实膨润土在盐溶液中膨胀时,其有效应力pe可分为两部分,即施加荷载部分p和渗透吸力部分p。对于浸泡于蒸馏水和NaCl溶液中的膨润土试样,其膨胀后的蒙脱石孔隙比em与有效应力pe之间的关系可采用同一关系曲线表示,此时施加于黏土颗粒上的有效应力的渗透吸力部分p=(p/)0.66。     

Investigation of the hydro-mechanical behaviour of GMZ bentonite pellet mixtures

Bentonite pellet mixtures are considered as one of the candidate sealing materials for deep geological disposals of radioactive waste. One of the particularities of this material is the initial heterogeneous distribution of pellets and porosity within the mixture, leading to complex hydro-mechanical behaviour. In this paper, the hydro-mechanical properties of GMZ bentonite pellet mixtures were investigated in the laboratory by carrying out water retention tests on pellet mixtures under constant-volume condition and single pellets under free swelling condition, as well as a infiltration test on a column specimen of pellet mixture. In the infiltration test, the relative humidity and radial swelling pressure were monitored at five heights, the axial swelling pressure was also recorded. The instantaneous profile method was applied to determine the unsaturated hydraulic conductivities. Results show that, in high suction range (>?10 MPa) the water retention curve of pellet mixture under constant-volume condition was comparable to that of a single pellet under free swelling condition, while in low suction range (<?10 MPa) the latter exhibits a much higher water retention capacity. Due to clogging of large pores, the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity decreases as suction decreases to around 25 MPa. However, with further suction decrease, the hydraulic conductivity increases continuously until the value at saturated state, as in the case of most unsaturated soils. The radial swelling pressure at different heights develops with local sudden increase and decrease, which was attributed to local rearrangement of pellets upon wetting. By contrast, as the axial swelling pressure was measured on the global surface of the specimen, it develops in a more regular fashion.

     

Analysis of WRCC of Fly Ash-Bentonite Mixes Based on Combined Shrinkage and Suction Measurement

Sand-Bentonite mixtures are used in landfill liner application in appropriate proportions. However, effort has been made to replace the sand by some waste materials like fly ash without compromising the required properties for liner construction. In recent years, many studies were carried out to determine the suitability of different fly ashes for using with bentonite based on different geotechnical parameters. On the other hand, limited studies were found in determining the unsaturated characteristics i.e. Water Retention Characteristics Curve (WRCC) of fly ash-bentonite mixes. The determination of WRCC in case of bentonite is very complexed compared to other types of clay soil due to its high shrinkage and swelling characteristics upon drying and wetting. In this study, a combined shrinkage and suction measurement was carried out in fly ash-bentonite mixes to accurately represent the WRCC under drying condition only. The shrinkage measurement was carried out using balloon method and suction measurement was carried out with the help of WP4 dew point potentiameter device. Both the shrinkage and suction results were finally used to obtain the WRCC for the different mixes. Further, the study on the variability of WRCCs for the different mixes indicates that WRCC can be represented by a generalized plot with 20% variation.

     

Reduction of Expansive Index,Swelling and Compression Behavior of Kaolinite and Bentonite Clay with Sand and Class C Fly Ash

Swelling behavior of expansive soil has always created problems in the field of geotechnical engineering. Generally, the method used to assess the swelling potential of expansive soil from its plasticity index, shrinkage limit and colloidal content. Alternative way to evaluate swelling behavior is from its expansive index (EI) and swelling pressure value. The present study investigates the reduction of EI and swelling pressure for kaolinite and bentonite clay when mixed with various percentages of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash. The percentages of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash used were 0–50 % by weight. The results show that there is a significant reduction in the swelling properties of expansive soil with the addition of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash. The reduction in EI ranged approximately from 10 to 50 and 4 to 49 % for kaolinite and bentonite clay, respectively. Also the maximum swelling pressure of kaolinite and bentonite clay decreased approximately 93 and 64 %, respectively with the addition of various percentages of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash. Standard index properties test viz., liquid limit, plastic limit and linear shrinkage test were conducted to see the characteristics of expansive soil when mixed with less expansive sand and fly ash. Also, for these expansive soils one dimensional consolidation test have been conducted with sand and fly ash mixtures and the results were compared with pure kaolinite and bentonite clay.     

Expansive bentonite-sand mixtures in cyclic controlled-suction drying and wetting

Expansive clay buffers in radioactive waste disposal designs experience cyclic drying and wetting paths during different stages of their design life. Clayey soils subjected to these processes develop swelling and shrinkage deformations, which give rise to the accumulation of compression or expansion strains during suction cycles. Experimental studies were undertaken using oedometer tests on an artificially prepared bentonite-sand mixture (80% bentonite by dry mass). In order to study these processes and to identify the most important features controlling soil behaviour, several wetting-drying cycles with suctions ranging between 130 and 4 MPa were applied using vapour equilibrium technique and covering a wide range of overconsolidation ratios (OCR). The tested samples showed cumulative shrinkage strains along the successive cycles, which became more significant at increasing vertical net stresses (low OCR values). However, no accumulation of expansion strains was detected at elevated OCR values. Test results were interpreted and predicted within the context of an elastoplastic model proposed by Alonso et al., 1999, [Alonso, E.E., Vaunat, J., Gens, A., (1999). Modelling the mechanical behaviour of expansive clays. Engineering Geology, 54, 173-183.] which takes into account the accumulation of strains. A good correspondence between measured soil response and model predictions was observed. The paper also presents the methodology to derive the constitutive parameters.     

化学作用下高庙子膨润土屏障性能演化行为

深地质处置库运营过程中,受地下水化学成分、可能泄露的核素等近场化学条件影响,膨润土工程屏障性能可能发生衰减。围绕化学作用下膨润土屏障性能的演化行为,以我国北山处置库预选场地为工程背景,以内蒙古高庙子膨润土为研究对象,首先介绍了高庙子膨润土的基本物理性质及北山预选场地近场化学条件;在此基础上,详细总结了化学作用下高庙子膨润土水力、力学及阻滞等屏障性能演化行为相关研究成果。结果表明:化学作用对膨润土持水、渗透特性的影响可分别依据渗透吸力及双电层理论解释;化学作用下膨润土膨胀力的衰减与其水化膨胀机制有关,化-力耦合及化-水-力耦合作用下膨润土变形特性因渗透固结、化学软化效应而发生改变;膨润土的吸附与扩散特性受核素浓度、离子环境、pH值等因素影响。最后,提出化学作用下膨润土屏障性能演化研究应重点关注的方向。     

高压实膨润土的非饱和渗透膨胀模型

高放废弃物深地质处置库中,作为缓冲/回填材料的高压实膨润土的设计功能是,遇水吸湿导致土体膨胀变形,以密封高压实膨润土块体砌置时形成的块体与块体之间和块体与围岩之间的施工缝隙以及围岩中因处置库开挖卸载引起的裂缝,形成阻障围岩中地下水渗入内库引起核素迁移,与库内高放废物的辐射扩散的人工屏障。高压实膨润土在自由膨胀条件下的膨胀应变和非饱和渗透系数由渗透试验测得;孔隙比和吸力的关系由压汞试验测得。吸力和含水率的函数关系可由土-水特征曲线测试试验得到。因此,自由膨胀条件下膨润土的非饱和渗透膨胀模型由膨胀应变、非饱和渗透系数和孔隙比与吸力的函数关系建立。结果表明：渗透系数和体积应变都随吸力减小而增加,因为吸力减小会导致孔隙比增加。这一发现有助于设计高放废物的最终处置方案。     

The Influence of Placement Conditions on the Swelling of Variable Clays

The swelling of clay when it is subjected to moisture increase is a complicated process found to be influenced by several factors. The clay??s level of response is highly dependent on its mineralogical composition and structure. Practicing geotechnical engineers use the placement state and general index properties to forecast the swelling behavior of the soils. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of placement conditions on various clays and to demonstrate that the swelling of a particular clay type should not be predicted using information and trends obtained for other clays with different origins. Clay from Saudi Arabia was used to investigate the influence of initial moisture content and initial dry density on swelling. The prediction models created by other researchers were compared to the measured values in this study. The swelling behavior of both initially dry and wet prepared bentonite was examined, and the rate at which swelling developed in the bentonite clay was studied. The role of clay content in the volume change of sand?Cbentonite mixtures was also investigated. It was concluded that the prediction of clay-swelling parameters should not be based on the properties of other clays with different origins and mineralogical compositions. The trends published in the literature should be taken as a general guide only, and the influence of moisture content and dry density on swelling should be verified for individual sites. Because clay content significantly influences the overall volume change, it should be carefully assessed in each case.     

双电层理论与高庙子膨润土的体变特征

黏性土中土体颗粒（矿物颗粒）带有负电荷,周围存在电场。在静电引力与布朗运动（热运动）作用下,紧邻土体颗粒表面处静电引力最强,水化离子和极性分子牢牢地被吸附在颗粒表面附近形成固定层。由固定层向外,静电引力逐渐减小,水化离子和极性分子的活动性逐渐增大,形成扩散层。固定层和扩散层中的阳离子（反离子层）与土粒表面负电荷共同构成双电层。根据双电层理论,当给定两个黏土片层之间的距离时,渗透压力可以由两个片层中轴线处的离子浓度来求取。同样,对于给定的渗透压力和中轴线处的离子浓度,便可以确定两个片层之间的距离。采用渗析法吸力控制技术与压汞仪法（MIP）微观结构试验手段,研究了低吸力范围内、自由膨胀条件下高压实高庙子膨润土的土水特性与体变特征,同时采用双电层理论估算了高庙子膨润土水化过程中的自由膨胀量,并将估算值与试验实测值进行了对比分析。在使用孔率计法试验结果求取试样孔隙比时考虑了压汞仪出力能力影响,采用线性延伸方法估算了残余孔隙量。研究结果显示,低吸力范围内,由双电层理论,估算的高压实高庙子膨润土的自由体积膨胀量与试验数据吻合较好,但随着吸力的进一步减小,两者之间的误差有增大的趋势,文中对出现这一偏差的原因进行了分析探讨。     

Model suggested for an important part of the hydro-mechanical behaviour of a water unsaturated bentonite

The hydro-mechanical behaviour of a clay-based buffer material for nuclear waste disposal has been investigated in a laboratory program. In this program, the main focus was on the influence of confinement on water uptake and swelling pressure during suction decrease. The laboratory program and some of the results are presented by Dueck [Dueck, A., 2006. Laboratory results from hydro-mechanical tests on a water unsaturated bentonite. submitted for publication.].

The results from the laboratory tests were used to find a relationship between water content, void ratio, swelling pressure and suction. Two equations for swelling pressure represent the outline of the model.

In the first equation, the swelling pressure developed during water uptake is normalised by a pressure corresponding to the swelling pressure at saturation. This is done in order to be independent of void ratio. A relationship between the normalised swelling pressure and the degree of saturation is suggested.

The second equation describes a relationship between the swelling pressure, the water content and the actual suction (or relative humidity). The equation is based on a thermodynamic relationship and includes the retention curve (i.e. water content vs. suction under free swelling conditions).

The model can be used for a state where two of the four variables; water content, void ratio, swelling pressure and suction are known and can thus be useful to evaluate field measurements and model late stages of the wetting process. An example of an application is given. The equations are mainly based on results from tests with increasing degrees of saturation under constant void ratio but are also suggested for use with increasing void ratio.