桂东南六陈中酸性侵入岩体LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年、岩石学、地球化学及其构造意义

通过对桂东南六陈中酸性侵入岩进行LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年、岩石学和地球化学研究,表明六陈中酸性侵入岩主要为二长花岗岩-钾长花岗岩组合,少量花岗闪长岩,岩石普遍含角闪石;岩石属富碱、高硅、高钾,属高钾钙碱性系列;稀土总量较高(∑REE 237.65×10~(-6)～316.06×10~(-6)),具中等铕亏损的轻稀土富集型的稀土配分曲线特征;对岩体进行了高精度的LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年,加权平均值为(245.1±1.2)Ma。该岩体总体显示为富碱性A2亚型花岗岩,形成于华南后碰撞伸展构造背景。     

青海阿木尼克山地区牦牛山组火山岩地球化学特征、锆石U-Pb年龄及其地质意义

利用岩石地球化学分析和LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年方法,对阿木尼克山地区牦牛组火山岩进行了系统的地球化学特征和锆石U-Pb年代学研究。其地球化学特征为,SiO_2含量介于53.94%~64.69%之间,全碱含量介于5.38%~9.86%之间,范围较大,里特曼指数介于1.45~4.54之间,属于碱性岩和钙碱性岩,铝饱和指数A/CNK均大于1.1,具有S型花岗岩的特征;稀土元素总量为68×10~(-6)~372×10~(-6),LREE/HREE值介于4.51~18.25之间,轻稀土元素富集,重稀土元素亏损,稀土元素配分曲线右倾;微量元素中不相容元素Rb、Ba、Th富集,Ta、Nb亏损明显,蛛网曲线呈现峰谷迭起的曲线形式。锆石CL图像和U-Pb同位素分析结果显示,牦牛山组火山岩锆石自形程度好,均有岩浆振荡环带的特征,Th/U值介于0.4~1.3之间,属于岩浆成因锆石。测得该火山岩中2件样品的锆石~(206)Pb/~(238)U年龄介于371~399Ma之间,年龄加权平均值分别为374.8±3.1Ma和392.4±3.3Ma,表明火山岩形成时代为中—晚泥盆世。结合区域特征,认为牦牛山组火山岩的形成与柴达木盆地北缘的演化有关,其是后碰撞阶段伸展作用的产物。     

吉林抚松四道砬子河岩组斜长角闪岩成因

在吉林抚松地区出露有一套太古宙角闪岩相变质岩石,其形成时代和成因机制长期存在争议。选定其中的斜长角闪岩作为研究对象,进行了岩石学、矿物学、岩石地球化学、锆石U-Pb年代学系统研究,分析了其形成过程,探讨了同时期构造岩浆演化背景。斜长角闪岩LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb测年取得的岩浆型锆石年龄分别为(2 555±13)Ma、(2 528±13)Ma、(2 529±9.8)Ma,表明其形成于新太古代晚期(2.55~2.50 Ga)。主量元素平均化学成分与基性火山岩中玄武岩成分相似,Si O2含量为46.22%~59.6%,平均值为51.13%;Al2O3含量11.83%~17.59%,平均值为13.42%。稀土元素总量53.74×10-6~219.07×10-6,平均值为108.17×10-6,(La/Yb)N=2.07~8.98,平均值5.19,表明轻稀土相对富集且轻重稀土分馏较明显。微量元素中较富集K、Rb、Ba等大离子亲石元素(LILE);亏损Zr、Ti、Nd、Ta等高场强元素(HFSE)。综合岩石矿物组成及地球化学成分特征,认为吉林抚松地区斜长角闪岩属正变质岩,原岩应为玄武质火山岩,岩浆主要来源于亏损地幔,同时伴有少量古老地壳的混染再造,形成于岛弧环境,该区是华北克拉通新太古代吉—辽—冀弧陆碰撞增生造山带的北延部分。     

湖南阳明山复式花岗岩的岩石成因：锆石U-Pb年代学、地球化学及Hf同位素约束

湖南阳明山复式岩体位于扬子地块和华夏地块的结合部位,岩体主要由白果市-土坳黑(白)云母二长花岗岩、阳明山二云母二长花岗岩、大江背电气石白云母二长花岗岩、大源里黑云母正长花岗岩组成,利用LA-ICPMS锆石U-Pb定年分别给出228.6±1.4Ma和205±1.8Ma、229.0±2.0Ma和221.8±1.3Ma、218.2±2.0Ma、217.8±1.6Ma的谐和年龄。综合野外观察、地质测量,阳明山复式花岗岩体可能经历了4期岩浆活动:~229Ma、~221Ma、~217Ma、~205Ma。各期次岩石总体具有高碱(ALK平均值8.55%)、高铝(Al2O3平均14.47%)、高磷(P2O5平均值0.25%),低硅(SiO2平均值71.74%)、低铁(Fe2O3T平均值0.92%)、低镁(MgO平均值0.19%)低Ca(CaO平均值0.64%)等特征。铝饱和指数A/CNK值为0.97%~1.30%,大部分大于1,属高钾钙碱性过铝-强过铝花岗岩。稀土配分模式表现为轻稀土相对富集,重稀土相对亏损,具有强烈的负Eu异常。在标准化蛛网图上,富集大离子亲石元素(U、Th、K)和Pb,明显亏损高场强元素(Ti、Nb)和Ba、Sr等元素。上述特征指示阳明山花岗岩是印支晚期同源岩浆多次脉动侵入的复式岩体并具有S型花岗岩的地球化学特征。锆石的εHf(t)值均为负值(集中在-12~-5之间),两阶段模式年龄(tDM2)主要集中在1.28~1.60Ga,推断是古老地壳部分熔融的产物。结合其形成年龄和区域构造背景,本文认为阳明山复式岩体是印支运动由挤压构造向伸展构造转换加厚地壳发生局部伸展-减薄的机制下,中元古代变质泥岩部分熔融形成,并经历了分离结晶作用,其形成温度850~875℃,压力约为7×108~10×108Pa,相当深度为26~30km。     

乌拉山地区古元古代S型花岗岩岩石地球化学、锆石U-Pb年代学及其地质意义

华北克拉通北缘乌拉山地区发育有大量的古元古代花岗岩,以诺尔音S型花岗岩为代表,本文对诺尔音花岗岩进行详细研究,结果表明:诺尔音花岗岩具有高硅w(Si O_2)=70.03%~75.43%、高铝(w(Al_2O_3)=13.04%~14.87%)、富钾(w(K_2O)=5.36%~6.58%)的特征,其较低的铁镁质量比Mg~#10和较高铝饱和指数A/CNK=1.03~1.21,属于典型的过铝质花岗岩,岩石轻稀土富集,且轻重稀土强烈分馏(La_N/Yb_N=22.3~300.5),配分模式表现为右倾型,具有明显的铕负异常(δEu=0.16~0.55),微量元素原始地幔标准化蛛网图显示,岩石富集K、Rb、Th、Pb,亏损Sr、Ba、Nb、Ta、P、Ti;诺尔音花岗岩与乌拉山地区古元古代孔兹岩系具有相似的主微量地球化学特征,推断其为古元古代阴山陆块与鄂尔多斯陆块碰撞背景下,孔兹岩系深熔作用的产物。LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄为(1891±14)Ma和(1863±17)Ma,代表诺尔音S型花岗岩的结晶年龄,与区域内孔兹岩带记录的岩浆-变质事件相吻合。     

印支地块晚二叠世弧后伸展:来自老挝川圹高原A型花岗岩的证据

印支地块老挝地区的地质构造特征由于历史原因很少公开报道,基于最近的野外考察和室内测试,本文报道了老挝北部川圹高原A型花岗岩的岩石学、年代学及地球化学的特征,并进一步揭示古特提斯板块汇聚初期印支地块内部的伸展特性。Nuna花岗岩体3个花岗岩样品的U-Pb年龄为258.7±1.9 Ma、259.0±1.7Ma及251.0±0.9Ma。花岗岩富硅(SiO_2平均含量71.94%),富FeOT(2.91%),富碱(Na_2O+K_2O平均含量9.2%,且K_2O含量高于Na_2O),贫镁(Mg O平均含量0.11%),富集轻稀土元素和Zr、Hf、Rb、Th和U等元素,亏损Sr、Eu和Ti、Ba等元素,以及较高的锆石饱和温度(平均927℃),显示A型花岗岩的性质特征。花岗岩全岩εNd(t)值和二阶Nd模式年龄分别位于-2.4~-2.1和1.20~1.22Ga之间,表明其岩浆源区主要为中元古代古老地壳。通过与印支地块陆壳增生事件的对比,作者认为Nuna A型花岗岩岩浆源区为中元古代古老地壳与少量幔源底侵形成的新生地壳的混合。Nuna花岗岩微量元素图解投点全部落入板内环境,结合其形成时代与区域构造岩浆演化历史,作者认为Nuna花岗岩形成于华南地块向西南俯冲于印支地块之下由于板片回撤引起的弧后伸展环境。     

东昆仑早古生代造山后花岗岩的特征——以大干沟花岗岩为例

大干沟花岗岩体位于东昆仑金水口地区,其岩石类型主要为中粗粒正长花岗岩。该花岗岩的SiO_2含量为68.68%~71.12%,平均含量为69.84%;Al_2O_3含量为14.01%~15.40%,平均含量为14.82%;K_2O/Na_2O值高,为1.19~1.64,平均为1.40;铝饱和指数A/CNK值为0.98~1.02,平均为1.00,具有准铝质-弱过铝质花岗岩的特点。岩石稀土元素总量较高,LREE元素富集,具有明显的Eu负异常,相对原始地幔明显富集U、Th,亏损Ti、P、Nb、Ta等高场强元素和Ba、Sr等大离子亲石元素,具有A型花岗岩的特征。花岗岩εNd(t)0,为-5.6~-7.3,tDM=1.54~2.27 Ga,表明其物源可能主要为中元古代物质(金水口群),LA-ICP-MS锆石εHf(t)=-2.2~2.6,显著不同于地壳岩浆的Hf同位素组成,显示有地幔物质添加。LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄为392±2 Ma(MSWD=1.14)。结合区域构造演化和上述地球化学特征,认为大干沟岩体为早古生代造山后伸展阶段的产物,是东昆南地体与东昆北地体碰撞后地幔岩浆上涌及地壳熔融的结果。     

扬子陆块西缘古元古代基性侵入岩LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄和Hf同位素及其地质意义

扬子陆块西缘康滇南北向构造带内发育大量古元古代基性岩脉(墙),它们对于认识扬子陆块早期的构造演化具有重要意义.对四川会理地区侵入到元古界通安组内的辉长岩进行LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Th-Pb同位素测定,获得的207pb/206Pb加权平均年龄为1694Ma±16Ma(MSWD=0.9),代表了该辉长岩的形成和侵位时代,这一结果指示会理地区通安组应为古元古代地层.辉长岩全岩地球化学具有类似于N-MORB的特征.辉长岩锆石初始(176H f/177Hf)i值为0.281881～0.281982,对应的εHf(t)为6.2～9.8,单阶段亏损地幔Hf模式年龄tDM1为1738～1883Ma,平均值为1803Ma.这些数据表明古元古代辉长岩来源于亏损地幔,指示古元古代晚期扬子西缘之下存在亏损地幔.结合扬子西缘大量古老的碎屑锆石,推测扬子陆块西缘存在太古宙—古元古代的结晶基底.与扬子陆块西缘古元古代晚期基性侵入岩形成有关的幔源岩浆事件明显晚于扬子陆块古元古代碰撞造山及造山后的伸展作用,记录了扬子陆块古元古代晚期一次伸展过程,可能是Columbia超大陆裂解作用在扬子陆块的响应.     

闽西南基性岩脉中捕获锆石SIMSU-Pb年龄及Hf、O同位素特征

测定了闽西南地区5件基性岩脉的全岩主微量元素,锆石U-Pb年龄和Hf,O同位素。5件岩脉主要为辉绿岩,其全岩SiO_2含量为45%~53%,稀土元素显示轻稀土富集的右倾配分模式。基性岩脉中大部分锆石具明显振荡环带和扇状环带,为典型岩浆结晶锆石特征。锆石U-Pb年龄(96~2 400 Ma)分布较为分散。除少量锆石年龄(96~142 Ma)可能指示岩脉形成年龄外,其余均为捕获锆石。捕获锆石年龄主要分布在4个范围:早元古代(2 467~1 796 Ma),中晚元古代—震旦纪(1 343~647 Ma),志留纪—晚三叠世(427~225 Ma),晚侏罗世(159~140 Ma)。Hf-O同位素显示早元古代锆石来源于接近球粒陨石均一储库的地幔。中晚元古代以后年龄的锆石其Hf-O同位素均具有亏损地幔岩浆与地壳组分混合的特征;志留纪—晚侏罗世锆石主要来源于S型壳源花岗岩的重熔;早白垩世晚期的锆石ε_(Hf)(t)值与δ~(18)O值清晰地显示出亏损地幔与地壳岩浆混合的趋势。闽西南基性岩脉中锆石的二阶段Hf亏损地幔模式年龄(TDM2)峰值主要分布在1.6~1.9 Ga,说明早元古代晚期幔源岩浆作用形成的基性岩地壳可能是形成后期花岗岩的主要源区。     

东昆仑群力地区晚泥盆世A型花岗岩的年代学、地球化学和构造意义

报道了东昆仑群力地区正长花岗岩体的锆石U-Pb年龄和岩石地球化学特征,并对岩石成因及其构造意义进行了讨论。锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb定年结果表明群力正长花岗岩体的形成时代为376.2Ma(MSWD=0.25),属晚泥盆世。岩石地球化学成分显示其属于高钾钙碱性、准铝质-弱过铝质系列花岗岩。岩体富硅(SiO_2=74.61%～77.85%)、富碱(Na_2O+K_2O=7.03%～7.94%)、高铁镁比(FeO~T/MgO=11.39～36.93)、贫钙(CaO=0.50%～1.01%)、贫镁(MgO=0.06%～0.20%);稀土配分模式表现为"海鸥型"分布特点,具有强烈的负铕异常(δEu=0.08～0.09);高镓含量(Ga=22.86×10~(-6)～27.06×10~(-6)),富集高场强元素组合(Zr+Ce+Nb+Y=720×10~(-6)～891×10~(-6))、亏损Ba、Sr、P、Nb、Ta、Ti等;同时岩体具有高的锆石饱和温度(991℃～1 201℃)。综合岩石地球化学特征表明群力正长花岗岩体属于A型花岗岩中的A_2型花岗岩,结合区域研究成果,认为群力正长花岗岩形成于始特提斯洋闭合后的伸展构造背景。这一结果将始特提斯洋闭合后的伸展作用时限从中泥盆世延长到晚泥盆世。     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Pebbles,Shapes, and Equilibria

The shape of sedimentary particles may carry important information on their history. Current approaches to shape classification (e.g. the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system) rely on shape indices derived from the measurement of the three principal axes of the approximating tri-axial ellipsoid. While these systems have undoubtedly proved to be useful tools, their application inevitably requires tedious and ambiguous measurements, also classification involves the introduction of arbitrarily chosen constants. Here we propose an alternative classification system based on the (integer) number of static equilibria. The latter are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. As opposed to the Zingg system, our method relies on counting rather than measuring. We show that equilibria typically exist on two well-separated (micro and macro) scales. Equilibria can be readily counted by simple hand experiments, i.e. the new classification scheme is practically applicable. Based on statistical results from two different locations we demonstrate that pebbles are well mixed with respect to the new classes, i.e. the new classification is reliable and stable in that sense. We also show that the Zingg statistics can be extracted from the new statistics; however, substantial additional information is also available. From the practical point of view, E-classification is substantially faster than the Zingg method.     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Pools,riffles, and channelization

The addition of regularly spaced deeps (pools) and shallows (riffles) that provide a variety of flow conditions, areal sorting of stream-bed material, cover for wildlife, and a positive aesthetic experience, may be desirable in many channel projects. Such designs will reduce adverse environmental impacts of stream channel modifications. Analysis of variance for pool-to-pool spacing data suggests that there is no significant difference with respect to channel width between pools that form in natural streams and those in streams affected by a variety of human uses. Short of channelization, which changes the channel width, pools and riffles, within limits, are not particularly sensitive to environmental stress. Experiments in Gum Branch near Charlotte, North Carolina, support the hypothesis that channel form and process evolve in harmony and that manipulation of cross-channel morphology can influence the development of desired channel processes. Planned manipulation of its channel form induced Gum Branch to develop as desired. Morphologic stability consisting of incipient point bars, pools, and riffles was maintained over a period of high magnitude flood events, only to be degraded later by a wave of sediment derived from upstream construction and stream-bank failures. Thus, environmentally desirable channel morphology in urban streams cannot remain stable if changes in the sediment load or storm-water runoff exceed the limits of the stream's ability to make internal adjustments while maintaining morphologic stability.