膨润土-砂的膨胀特性与蒙脱石质量比率

在高放废物(HLW)地质处置的工程屏障体系中,使用以膨润土为主料的混合型缓冲回填材料,是阻截放射性核素向地下水环境迁移的最主要的包封设施。膨润土中添加一定量的石英砂,既能优化回填设计与施工性能,又能满足对放射性核素的有效拦截。本文综合分析了初始含水量、干密度、膨润土含量、压力等对压实膨润土-砂混合物膨胀性能指标的影响,提出"蒙脱石的质量比率"这一指标,将干密度和膨润土含量归一为蒙脱石质量比率指标,得出混合材料膨胀力随蒙脱石质量比率增长呈指数增长的规律,从而可以实现对膨胀力的定量预测。     

两种高庙子钠基膨润土膨胀特性比较研究

对两种高庙子钠基膨润土（简称GMZ001和GMZ07）在不同初始干密度下进行膨胀力试验、常压力下的膨胀变形试验以及压缩试验。试验结果表明,GMZ001的膨胀能力要比GMZ07的大,并且GMZ001比GMZ07更难压实。对饱和后两种膨润土进行压汞试验和扫描电子显微镜测试后发现,在相同孔隙比下,GMZ07集聚体间孔隙较多,并且GMZ001集聚体的水化程度大于GMZ07。结合土工和微观试验的结果,认为导致两者力学性能差异的主要原因是由于颗粒粒径大小的差异以及蒙脱石含量的不同。最后利用蒙脱石孔隙比的概念对两种膨润土的浸水膨胀试验结果进行归一化,并对膨润土的膨胀特性进行了预测。     

γ辐照老化对高庙子天然钠基膨润土力学强度和变形特性影响研究

为探究高放核废物深地质处置缓冲材料的长期稳定性,以内蒙古高庙子(GMZ)天然钠基膨润土为研究对象,揭示了γ辐照老化作用对高压实天然钠基膨润土样品力学强度和变形特性的影响。采用钴源在室温下对该膨润土进行不同累积剂量的辐照作用,分析了辐照前、后膨润土的矿物成分变化,并开展了三轴剪切以及膨胀变形试验。结果表明:γ辐照老化作用引起膨润土部分矿物成分的变化,蒙脱石微观结构稳定性降低并转化为更稳定的硅酸盐和硅铝酸盐矿物;膨润土经过辐照作用后剪切强度有所增长且随辐照剂量增大,矿物成分发生了变化,同等围压下膨润土的剪切峰值强度逐渐提高;随着围压的增大,强度增长的幅度逐渐变缓,辐照剂量对强度的影响减弱,表明围压对膨润土强度的增长有一定的抑制作用;由于辐照后蒙脱石的含量减少,膨润土的膨胀变形性能相应减弱,即膨胀力、自由膨胀应变、有荷膨胀应变等指标降低。     

盐溶液饱和高庙子膨润土膨胀特性及预测

甘肃北山被首选为修建高放废物处置库的地区。考虑到该地区地下水中含有总溶解固体（TDS）,选择NaCl-Na2SO4作为溶解固体。以高庙子钠基膨润土为试验材料,利用单向固结仪,进行不同TDS浓度盐溶液和蒸馏水饱和的膨胀试验。根据蒙脱石孔隙比的概念,统一整理了饱和高庙子膨润土在盐溶液和蒸馏水饱和下的膨胀特性。结果表明,当TDS浓度为12.3 g/L（预选处置库区的最高离子浓度）时,在双对数坐标中蒙脱石孔隙比与膨胀力关系和干密度与膨胀力关系均呈直线且平行于蒸馏水的试验结果;对于给定干密度试样,膨胀力的对数与TDS浓度呈线性关系。根据以上试验结果,给出了由高庙子钠基膨润土的设计干密度和离子浓度计算相应膨胀力和膨胀变形的表达式。     

膨润土加砂混合物膨胀特征试验研究

运用自行研制的膨胀仪对膨润土加砂混合物进行了一系列膨胀力及膨胀应变等膨胀特性的试验研究,分析了膨胀力随时间的变化规律、两向膨胀力之间的关系和膨胀应变与时间及吸水量之间的关系。试验研究表明,膨润土加砂混合物的最大膨胀力以及最大膨胀应变主要取决于混合物的最初干密度和膨润土含量,并且随着二者的增大而增大;膨润土加砂混合物的水平膨胀力与竖向膨胀力之比随着混合物干密度的增大减小,并且与干密度近似成线性关系;不同膨润土含量的膨润土加砂混合物的膨胀应变与时间成双曲线关系,与吸水量近似呈S型曲线关系,并且其最大膨胀应变与膨润土含量存在指数关系。试验结果对高放废物深处置库中的缓冲回填材料设计具有一定的参考价值。     

盐溶液中膨润土膨胀变形的分形模型

当压实膨润土在蒸馏水中膨胀后,施加于膨润土颗粒上的有效应力通常被认为是外部施加的荷载,而当膨润土在盐溶液中膨胀时,膨润土颗粒所承受的有效应力还包括由孔隙水渗透吸力所引起的渗透应力。而压缩膨润土的蒙脱石孔隙比e_m与膨润土颗粒承受的有效应力p之间满足分形关系,该关系可用来计算膨润土的膨胀变形。通过对压实膨润土在盐溶液中颗粒的分散情况以及颗粒表面的分形特性,推导出该渗透应力的表达式,进而得出膨润土颗粒所承受的有效应力。将所提出的有效应力代入分形模型中,计算GMZ01和MX-80膨润土在不同浓度NaCl溶液中的膨胀变形,将现有的两种膨润土膨胀试验结果与模型计算结果对比,发现具有较好的吻合度,在蒸馏水以及各浓度的盐溶液中膨润土的膨胀变形都可采用统一的e_m-p曲线表示,表明提出的有效应力符合膨润土颗粒在盐溶液中的实际受力情况。分形模型为研究膨润土在盐溶液中的膨胀性质提供了有效的计算方法。     

碱性溶液饱和高庙子钙基膨润土膨胀特性及预测

建设高放废物地质处置库需要大量混凝土,而放射性核素衰变释放的大量热量会加速水泥老化,产生的碱性孔隙水会对膨润土的缓冲性能产生不利影响。以高庙子(GMZ)钙基膨润土为试验材料,选用NaOH溶液模拟碱性孔隙水,利用自主研制的耐腐蚀固结仪,完成不同浓度和不同干密度下的膨胀力实验。结果表明,在相同浓度碱性溶液饱和后试样的最终膨胀力随初始干密度的增大而增大;初始干密度相同时,低浓度碱性溶液对膨润土膨胀力有强化作用,高浓度碱性溶液对膨润土膨胀力有弱化作用;在0.3、0.5、1.0 mol/L NaOH溶液环境下试样的膨胀力在达到最大值后会出现下降,膨胀力衰减的程度与溶液浓度有关而与干密度无关。通过X射线衍射试验(XRD)分析矿物成分和晶层间距得到,蒙脱石含量和方英石含量随碱溶液浓度升高而降低,长石含量随着碱溶液浓度升高而上升;NaOH溶液会使钙基膨润土钠化,钠化程度受溶液浓度影响。最后利用蒙脱石孔隙比的概念,对试样的蒙脱石孔隙比和最终膨胀力结果在双对数坐标系中线性拟合,给出预测碱性溶液饱和钙基膨润土膨胀力的表达式。     

碱金属离子及碱溶液对膨润土性能影响的研究进展

基于前人有关膨润土在碱性环境下的室内试验和数值模拟的研究结果 ,重点阐述了碱金属离子及碱溶液对膨润土矿物成分、微观结构、膨胀性和渗透性等方面的影响,讨论了温度、pH值与溶液浓度等对上述过程的影响。碱金属离子及碱性溶液不仅可交换膨润土中蒙脱石层间阳离子,而且可溶解膨润土中的蒙脱石,生成非膨胀性矿物,并随着温度和pH值升高,蒙脱石被溶解程度增加,从而导致了膨润土膨胀力减小,且随着温度、溶液浓度及pH值的增加,膨胀力削弱程度加强;同时,膨润土与碱金属离子及碱溶液接触时孔隙增多,进而渗透性增强,随着温度和溶液浓度增加,渗透性也明显增强。数值模拟可实现膨润土与碱性溶液长期接触时发生的矿物成分及渗透性变化的预测。高温、不同pH值的低碱性溶液及其耦合作用对膨润土的矿物化学成分、微观结构、膨胀力和渗透性的影响及机理研究应该是今后研究的重点。     

高庙子膨润土水化膨胀特性及其微观机理研究

膨润土具有遇水膨胀的特性,是高放核废料深地质处置库理想的缓冲回填材料。膨胀特性是其作为缓冲材料最重要的性能之一,同时受多方面因素的影响。本文以我国首选缓冲材料高庙子膨润土为研究对象,以含水率和干密度为控制变量,以恒体积法为试验方法,研究了高压实高庙子膨润土的水化膨胀特性,采用压汞试验法(MIP)对膨润土微观结构进行了研究,并以此对水化膨胀特性进行了解释。膨胀力试验结果表明,高庙子膨润土的膨胀力发展形式和最大膨胀力均受试样含水率和干密度影响,干密度较小时,水化曲线呈明显的双峰结构,干密度较大时,水化曲线形态与含水率相关,随着含水率增大,双峰结构逐渐消失。MIP试验结果表明,高庙子膨润土的孔径分布同样受含水率和干密度影响,随着含水率和干密度降低,集合体间大孔隙体积增多。膨润土的水化膨胀曲线受集合体间大孔隙影响显著。大孔隙较多时,膨润土集合体能迅速膨胀形成临时结构,当膨胀力超过临时结构的极限荷载时发生坍塌,膨胀力回落,内部结构重组后继续水化达到最大膨胀力,因此其水化膨胀曲线呈明显的双峰结构。随着大孔隙量减少,水化膨胀曲线由双峰结构演变成一条平滑曲线。     

混合型缓冲回填材料膨胀力试验研究

与纯膨润土相比,混合型缓冲回填材料（膨润土与石英砂混合物）能够实现防渗阻隔能力、热传导性能、力学强度和可施工性能的最佳组合。选用高庙子钠基膨润土（GMZ001）为缓冲回填材料的主料,添加不同比例的石英砂,对掺砂比分别为0、10%、20%、30%、40%和50%的膨润土-砂混合物压实试样进行室内试验。结果表明,混合物的液限、塑限随掺砂率的增大而线性降低;膨胀力随时间呈指数增长。初始含水率较大时,最大膨胀力随初始含水率的增大略有降低。掺砂率一定时,最大膨胀力随初始干密度指数增长。提出了有效黏土密度的概念,建立了一定初始含水率条件下,任意掺砂率和初始干密度的高庙子膨润土-砂混合物最大膨胀力归一化模型,为混合型缓冲回填材料膨胀力的预测与控制提供了依据。     

Modification of physical, mechanical and hydraulic properties of bentonite by thermo-hydraulic gradients

The conditions of the bentonite in an engineered barrier for high-level radioactive waste disposal have been simulated in a series of tests. Cylindrical cells with an inner length of 60 cm and a diameter of 7 cm have been constructed. Inside the cells, six blocks of FEBEX bentonite have been piled-up, giving rise to a total length similar to the thickness of the clay barrier in a repository according to the Spanish concept. To obtain the blocks, the clay with its hygroscopic water content has been uniaxially compacted at a dry density of 1.65 g/cm³. The bottom surface of the material was heated at 100 °C and the top surface was injected with granitic water. The duration of the tests was 6, 12 and 24 months. The temperatures inside the clay and the water intake were measured during the tests and, at the end, the cells were dismounted and the dry density, water content and some hydro-mechanical properties of the clay (permeability, swelling pressure and swelling under load) were measured at different positions. The values obtained are compared to those of the untreated FEBEX bentonite. The injection of water provokes in the vicinity of the hydration surface an increase of the water content and a decrease of the dry density due to the swelling of the clay, while heating gives rise to an increase of the dry density and a reduction of the water content in the 18 cm closest to the heater, even after 2 years of thermo-hydraulic (TH) treatment. The swelling capacity and the hydraulic conductivity after TH treatment are mainly related to the dry density and water content attained during it. No major irreversible modifications of these properties with respect to those of the untreated clay have been detected.     

A laboratory study of the self sealing behaviour of a compacted sand–bentonite mixture

Bricks made of compacted sand–bentonite mixture are considered as a possible engineered barrier to isolate high-level radioactive waste at great depth. This work is aimed at investigating some specific effects related to the presence of discontinuities at the contact between the bricks and the excavation wall. In order to do this, an experimental device was developed in the laboratory. The model is made up of a specially designed infiltration cylinder which allows the precise definition of a planar discontinuity between the compacted specimen (a sand–bentonite mixture made up of sand and Kunigel clay from Japan) and a metal wall. During hydration and subsequent specimen swelling, the planar wall is filled, resulting in a healing process. Three total pressure gauges placed along the wall allow a detailed observation of the increase in total stress against the wall. After different periods of swelling, the maximum resistance of the specimen–wall interface to pressure was tested by imposing a pressure increase through a porous stone placed at one end of the cylinder. It was found that the maximum pressure supported by the interface is a function of the initial thickness of the discontinuity and the initial density of the specimen. It was also found that the maximum sustainable pressure depends linearly on the elapsed time. These results are of interest for optimizing water infiltration procedures in either mock-up tests or real disposal systems. If the maximum sustainable pressure at the interface is known, it is possible either to ensure homogeneous hydration of a mass of bricks by respecting the maximum injection pressure limit or to accelerate hydration by forcing water paths along the discontinuities.     

Swelling pressure–suction relationship of heavily compacted bentonite–sand mixtures

This paper presents results of an experimental work to determine a relationship between swelling pressure and suction of heavily compacted bentonite–sand mixtures. For comparison, tests were also carried out on heavily compacted bentonite specimens. A series of swelling pressure tests were performed using multi-step constant-volume method where suction of the specimens tested was reduced in a stepwise manner toward a zero value. The suction reduction was induced using vapor equilibrium and axis-translation techniques. It is shown that compacted specimens did not exhibit any collapse upon suction decrease and exhibited maximum swelling pressures at zero-equilibrium suction. The development of swelling pressure with decreasing suction of the specimens showed threshold suctions below which a further reduction in suction yields an increase in the swelling pressure of the same magnitude. The magnitude of threshold suction was found to be a function of bentonite content in compacted specimens.     

Simplified evaluation for swelling characteristics of bentonites

Bentonite is currently planned to be used as buffer and backfill materials for repositories of high-level nuclear waste because these materials must have the swelling characteristics to seal the waste. In the design for buffer and backfill materials, we must choose the adequate bentonite among many kinds of bentonite in the world. The database of the swelling characteristics of various bentonites and its evaluation will be available when we will select the adequate bentonite. For this purpose, this study performed the laboratory tests on the swelling pressure and swelling deformation of four kinds of bentonite produced in Japan and the United States. These bentonites have different physicochemical properties. This study investigated the characteristics of swelling pressure and swelling deformation from the viewpoint of the physicochemical properties of each bentonite. Furthermore, this study also proposed the simplified evaluation of swelling characteristics of various bentonites on the basis of microscopic analysis.     

膨润土膨胀变形的分形模型

Xu等[1] 提出基于膨润土表面分形模型的膨胀变形计算方法 Vw／Vm=kPDs-3(式1),并得到了Tsukinuno膨润土、Wyoming膨润土和MX-80膨润土的膨胀变形和膨胀压力(统称膨胀变形)的膨胀试验数据的验证。当时由于条件限制,存在两个问题:(1)膨润土的表面分维一般采用氮吸附法测量,由膨胀变形试验数据反算得到的膨润土表面分维没有得到氮吸附试验数据的验证; (2)在归一化吸水体积与压力的分形模型(式1)中,K是膨润土的物性常数,没有给出理论表达式,只是经验系数。本文采用氮吸附方法测量了高庙子Na基膨润土、高庙子Ca基膨润土、商用膨润土和Tsukinuno膨润土的表面分维,根据式(1)由表面分维计算膨胀变形,并与膨胀试验数据比较,验证膨胀变形的分形模型; 根据双电层理论,导出用双电层参数表示式(1)中K值的理论表达式,用于膨胀变形的计算,并与膨胀变形试验结果进行比较验证。     

An upscaling method and a numerical analysis of swelling/shrinking processes in a compacted bentonite/sand mixture

This paper presents an upscaling concept of swelling/shrinking processes of a compacted bentonite/sand mixture, which also applies to swelling of porous media in general. A constitutive approach for highly compacted bentonite/sand mixture is developed accordingly. The concept is based on the diffuse double layer theory and connects microstructural properties of the bentonite as well as chemical properties of the pore fluid with swelling potential. Main factors influencing the swelling potential of bentonite, i.e. variation of water content, dry density, chemical composition of pore fluid, as well as the microstructures and the amount of swelling minerals are taken into account. According to the proposed model, porosity is divided into interparticle and interlayer porosity. Swelling is the potential of interlayer porosity increase, which reveals itself as volume change in the case of free expansion, or turns to be swelling pressure in the case of constrained swelling. The constitutive equations for swelling/shrinking are implemented in the software GeoSys/RockFlow as a new chemo‐hydro‐mechanical model, which is able to simulate isothermal multiphase flow in bentonite. Details of the mathematical and numerical multiphase flow formulations, as well as the code implementation are described. The proposed model is verified using experimental data of tests on a highly compacted bentonite/sand mixture. Comparison of the 1D modelling results with the experimental data evidences the capability of the proposed model to satisfactorily predict free swelling of the material under investigation. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Swelling characteristics of compacted lateritic soil–bentonite mixtures subjected to municipal waste leachate contamination

Compacted soil–bentonite mixtures are finding wide application as buffer material for waste repositories for their favorable self-sealing qualities. The swelling properties of such materials which serve as a measure of their self-sealing capabilities and, thus, the efficiency of the repository in sealing off their contents from the environment are closely related to the chemistry of the leachate that emanate from the wastes. For this reason, the swelling parameters (namely swelling potential and pressure) of compacted lateritic soil–bentonite mixtures under consideration for use as barrier in municipal waste landfill were evaluated. Series of swelling potential and pressure tests were performed using variable content (0–10 %) of bentonite at predetermined optimum moisture content. Soil mixtures were compacted with British Standard Heavy compactive effort and saturated with processed tap water as well as three leachate solutions of varying ionic strength that were generated in active open dump landfills. Experimental results showed that swelling potential based on the free swell together with the maximum swell pressures of compacted soil mixtures measured at equilibrium increased approximately linearly with increase in the amount of bentonite when inundated with processed tap water and the three leachate solutions. On the other hand, these swelling parameters decreased as the ionic strength of the leachate solutions measured by their electrical conductivity increased for the various soil mixtures. These results provide an insight into the swelling behavior and the possible degradation in the efficiency of the proposed lateritic soil–bentonite mixtures in relation to their use as buffer material in waste landfills.