南秦岭武当山十堰地区中生代镁铁质岩石成因与构造意义——岩石地球化学、锆石U-Pb年龄和Hf同位素制约

南秦岭的北大巴山—武当山—十堰—随州一带发育大规模的镁铁质岩墙群,其岩石学成因为地质学家所广泛关注。本文对其中的武当山十堰地区黄龙—方滩一带发育的辉长岩体开展了全岩地球化学、SHRIMP锆石U-Pb年龄以及LA—MC—ICP—MS锆石Hf同位素组成研究。结果表明,辉长岩形成于晚三叠世(221.2±2.5 Ma);岩石地球化学组成显示辉长岩为亚碱性拉斑玄武岩系列,轻稀土富集重稀土亏损,其平滑右倾的稀土配分模式与E—MORB相似;中等Ti、Zr、Hf、Nb含量,亏损Rb、Sr等大离子亲石元素,以及结晶年龄锆石的ε_(Hf)(t)值在-13.5至-6.18之间,表明岩石具有古老的两阶段Hf模式年龄(2103～1640 Ma)。综合分析表明:该套辉长岩岩浆为尖晶石二辉橄榄岩低压、中等程度部分熔融形成,并且其源区为亏损地幔与富集地幔组分混合成因;结合区域构造演化的相关资料,认为该套E—MORB性质辉长岩形成于类似汇聚边缘的构造环境,可能为受勉略洋壳俯冲影响,为俯冲—碰撞造山阶段产物。     

东昆仑阿克楚克塞地区辉长岩地球化学特征、锆石U-Pb年龄及其构造意义

东昆仑地区基性-超基性岩石的研究较薄弱,缺乏对东昆仑幔源岩浆活动及岩浆演化的整体认识。对阿克楚克塞辉长岩进行了地球化学、锆石U-Pb年代学及Hf同位素研究,结果显示,该岩石形成于晚三叠世早期(219.3±1.1Ma,MSWD=0.80);岩石SiO2含量为49.03%~57.26%,Mg#值为49~57,属于钙碱性系列岩石;稀土元素配分曲线为轻稀土元素富集的右倾型,富集大离子亲石元素Rb、Ba、K,相对亏损高场强元素Nb、Ta、Ti;εHf(t)=-1.81~3.25,锆石Hf模式年龄大于锆石结晶年龄。地球化学特征显示,阿克楚克塞辉长岩岩浆源区应为受俯冲板片流体交代的岩石圈地幔。结合区域构造背景分析,阿克楚克塞辉长岩形成于印支期造山后伸展的构造环境,继承了早期板片俯冲改造的地幔源区特征。     

冈底斯中段卡热辉长岩锆石U- Pb年代学、地球化学及构造意义

以冈底斯中段曲水县西南方向卡热乡一带出露的辉长岩为研究对象,进行了LA-ICP-MS锆石UPb测年以及全岩地球化学的系统测定,据此讨论岩石的成因及其构造意义。该辉长岩主要由单斜辉石和斜长石组成,辉长岩具有低硅、贫碱、富铝,中等富集轻稀土,富集大离子亲石元素,亏损高场强元素的地球化学特征,与岛弧和大陆边缘地区产出的高铝玄武岩化学组成十分相似,表明辉长岩原生岩浆为被俯冲改造的岩石圈幔源岩浆,在演化过程中受到了上地壳物质的混染。锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb年龄为49.01±0.51Ma(MSWD=0.41),指示岩体形成时代为始新世。卡热辉长岩具有显著亏损的锆石Hf同位素组成,εHf(t)值均为正值,分布在+10.88～+13.71之间,综合分析表明卡热辉长质侵入体可能为近期遭受俯冲板片析出流体交代作用的亏损地幔部分熔融的产物。结合区域构造演化史认为该岩体在冈底斯南缘的始新世期间存在着强烈的岩浆底侵和壳幔岩浆混合作用。     

武当山十堰地区二叠纪E-MORB型玄武岩识别及构造意义

大比例尺构造—岩相填图和测试分析研究显示南秦岭武当山并非统一前寒武纪基底组成,在十堰和两郧断裂之间的黄龙—方滩及丹江口银洞山等地区识别和厘定出一套中生代混杂岩带,开展混杂岩带内物质组成和成因研究对正确认识武当山造山作用和区域构造演化有重要意义。本文重点对武当山十堰黄龙—方滩地区混杂岩带内玄武岩块体岩石成因及时代进行研究,岩石地球化学显示玄武岩块体为亚碱性拉斑玄武岩系列,具有中等Ti、Zr、Hf、Nd含量、弱轻稀土富集重稀土亏损的E-MORB(Enriched Mid-ocean ridge basalt,富集型洋中脊玄武岩)特征,其岩浆为尖晶石二辉橄榄岩低压、高度部分熔融形成,源区可能受富集地幔或俯冲作用等影响导致富集高场强不相容元素;锆石U-Pb测年表明其为中二叠世火山作用产物;区域地质特征及岩石成因研究共同指示该套E-MORB形成于洋中脊或附近海山环境。综上,武当山十堰地区中—晚二叠世存在洋盆,该成果为理解十堰黄龙—方滩混杂岩带成因机制和正确认识南秦岭显生宙构造属性提供了基础资料。     

滇西南热水塘辉长岩形成时代、成因及古地理格局

滇西南澜沧江带的热水塘—龙洞河一带的沉积-岩浆岩组合被认为是反映昌宁-孟连洋开始俯冲阶段"弧前-弧-弧后"古地理格局的典型代表。本文对该体系中出露于热水塘一带的辉长岩进行了矿物学、岩石地球化学、年代学及锆石Hf同位素研究。热水塘辉长岩中单斜辉石组成为Fs16~18,Wo42~45,En38~42,Mg#Cpx=69~72。根据单斜辉石与岩浆间Fe-Mg分配关系计算,单斜辉石结晶时,其母岩浆的Mg#范围约为31~40,低于其全岩Mg#范围(约45~50),表明热水塘辉长岩全岩化学组成特征受到了矿物堆晶作用的影响。热水塘辉长岩全岩轻稀土元素弱富集,无明显Eu正异常,大离子亲石元素相对富集而高场强元素亏损。辉长岩的矿物学及岩石地球化学特征表明该岩体形成于火山弧构造背景,为火山弧玄武质岩浆经较高程度分异和斜长石分离结晶的产物。LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb测年结果显示辉长岩体形成于早二叠世早期(295 Ma±4 Ma),锆石Hf同位素分析显示其εHf(t)=7.5~14.0,平均为10.7,低于其结晶时的亏损地幔值。热水塘辉长岩的形成应与早二叠世早期昌宁-孟连洋在思茅地体西缘热水塘地区自西向东发生俯冲有关。     

内蒙古乌兰浩特地区二长花岗岩年代学、岩石成因及其构造环境

内蒙古乌兰浩特地区太平山嘎查岩体主要岩石类型为黑云母二长花岗岩。所测得的LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄分别为127.4 Ma和125.6 Ma,属于早白垩世。太平山嘎查岩体的地球化学特征表明岩体属于弱过铝质、高钾钙碱性系列的高分异I型花岗岩。样品(P9-48-1)的锆石Hf同位素组成显示黑云母二长花岗岩的ε_(Hf)(t)=+8.60±0.57,两阶段亏损地幔模式年龄为511~748 Ma,说明其岩浆源区主要为新元古代—显生宙期间从亏损地幔新增生地壳的部分熔融。太平山嘎查岩体应形成于伸展构造体制,该伸展构造体制的产生可能与古太平洋板块向欧亚大陆下的俯冲有关。     

赣东北蛇绿岩形成时代及构造环境——樟树墩辉长岩锆石U_Pb年龄、Hf同位素和地球化学约束

赣东北蛇绿岩是华南最重要的前寒武纪蛇绿岩之一,本文对其中的樟树墩辉长岩进行了年代学、岩石地球化学及锆石Hf同位素研究。LA_ICP_MS锆石U_Pb测年结果显示樟树墩辉长岩结晶年龄为1 061±44 Ma,代表了洋盆扩张的年龄,也即赣东北蛇绿岩的形成年龄。单颗粒锆石原位Hf同位素分析得到樟树墩辉长岩εHf(t)=6.22~9.94,平均值为8.10,略低于结晶时亏损地幔值;单阶段亏损地幔Hf模式年龄tDM1为1.21~1.41 Ga,平均为1.28Ga,明显大于成岩年龄1 061 Ma。地球化学及锆石Hf同位素结果显示赣东北蛇绿岩地幔具有E-MORB的特点,表明这些辉长岩起源于未发生大规模熔融的初始地幔,推测赣东北蛇绿岩可能形成于古洋盆初始裂解阶段的洋脊环境,赣东北蛇绿岩为MOR型蛇绿岩。     

新疆西准噶尔木哈塔依蛇绿混杂岩年代学和地球化学研究及构造意义

木哈塔依蛇绿混杂岩位于新疆西准噶尔达拉布特蛇绿岩带北东端,蛇绿岩组合包括蛇纹石化及石英菱镁岩化方辉橄榄岩、玄武岩和硅质岩,蛇绿岩中侵入有辉长岩脉。对蛇绿岩开展了详细的岩相学、岩石地球化学、锆石UPb年代学和Hf同位素研究。玄武岩和辉长岩均为低钾拉斑玄武岩系列,两者同时具有轻稀土富集和弱亏损的EMORB和N-MORB的配分曲线,微量元素具有Ba、U、K、La、Ce等LILE相对富集,Nb、Ta、Th等HFSE相对亏损的特征,结合玄武岩中相对稳定的微量元素和氧化物构造判别图解,认为蛇绿岩形成于弧后盆地。玄武岩LA-ICPMS锆石U-Pb同位素年龄为(392.5)±2.9 Ma(n=26,MSWD=1.3),代表蛇绿岩形成年龄。玄武岩锆石εHf(t)值为+12.2~+15.1,Hf同位素地幔模式年龄t(DM)(407~543 Ma)与锆石形成年龄相近,指示玄武岩直接来源于亏损地幔,且没有遭受地壳物质的明显混染。地幔岩铬尖晶石化学成分和玄武岩Dy/Yb-La/Yb图解表明,地幔橄榄岩可能为亏损的尖晶石二辉橄榄岩发生25%~30%部分熔融的残余,而熔出的基性熔体为玄武岩和辉长岩的母岩浆。综合研究认为,达拉布特蛇绿岩所代表的西准噶尔洋盆为准噶尔洋北西俯冲形成的弧后盆地,洋盆在中志留世就已经存在并开始扩张,直到早石炭世洋盆依然存在,晚石炭世洋盆进入俯冲消减和闭合阶段。     

东昆仑希望沟橄榄辉长岩的岩石成因：地球化学、锆石U-Pb年龄与Hf同位素制约

东昆仑古特提斯域镁铁-超镁铁质岩石的研究极为薄弱,文章报道了青海东昆仑东段希望沟橄榄辉长岩的岩相学、锆石U-Pb年代学、岩石地球化学及锆石Hf同位素资料,以确定该岩体的形成时代、岩石成因及构造环境,为东昆仑晚古生代—早中生代构造岩浆演化提供新的约束。岩石地球化学研究表明,希望沟橄榄辉长岩具有低SiO2(40.91%~42.14%)、低TiO2(0.29%~0.39%)、高MgO(28.18%~30.66%)、贫碱(K2O+Na2O=1.09%~1.36%)的特征,属亚碱性系列岩石,m/f比值介于5.03~5.39,属于铁质超基性岩类。岩石微量元素总体上富集大离子亲石元素(Rb、Th、U、K)和Pb,相对亏损高场强元素(Nb、P、Ti),ΣREE为28.17×10^-6~30.95×10^-6,(La/Yb)N为3.77~4.98,显示轻稀土富集的特征,δEu=0.80~0.95,具有弱的Eu负异常。利用LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年技术,获得橄榄辉长岩加权平均年龄为(264.9±1.2)Ma(n=26,MSWD=0.71),属中二叠世。锆石176Hf/177Hf比值为0.282709~0.283152,对应的εHf(t)=3.7~19.3,锆石单阶段Hf模式年龄TDM为135~753 Ma,平均为414 Ma,大于锆石U-Pb年龄。研究认为,橄榄辉长岩的岩浆源区主要为亏损地幔,可能有早期流体交代的岩石圈地幔组分的加入,并经历了地壳物质的混染。结合东昆仑区域构造演化,认为希望沟橄榄辉长岩是阿尼玛卿古特提斯洋俯冲阶段的产物,说明古特提斯洋在中二叠世已北向俯冲。     

班公湖中特提斯洋向南俯冲的时限:来自SSZ型辉长岩的制约

班公湖-怒江中特提斯洋的俯冲极性和俯冲时间一直存在争议。作者通过野外地质调查、岩相学、锆石U-Pb年代学及岩石地球化学研究,从西藏班公湖蛇绿混杂岩带中识别出一套早白垩世SSZ型蛇绿岩,岩石组合上主要由辉长岩和玄武岩组成,还有少量的硅质岩和超基性岩。本文对辉长岩进行了全岩主、微量元素地球化学及LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年代学研究。地球化学组成特征显示,辉长岩富集轻稀土元素,重稀土元素平坦,相对富集大离子亲石元素,高场强元素存在一定亏损;Th/Ta比值与岛弧玄武岩相似(Th/Ta1.6),Ta/Hf比值较高(0.1),显示其既保留了俯冲环境的地球化学特征,也提供了伸展构造环境的信息。辉长岩中锆石U-Pb加权平均年龄为129.2±0.4 Ma(MSWD=0.36),该年龄是班公湖-怒江缝合带中迄今报道的最年轻蛇绿岩年龄。结合区域地质背景,认为这套蛇绿岩形成于班公湖-怒江古洋盆西段向南俯冲形成的弧前盆地,而班公湖-怒江古洋盆北向俯冲可能始于早侏罗世,晚侏罗世形成双向俯冲格局,直到早白垩世洋盆关闭,晚白垩世进入陆内构造环境。     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Pools,riffles, and channelization

The addition of regularly spaced deeps (pools) and shallows (riffles) that provide a variety of flow conditions, areal sorting of stream-bed material, cover for wildlife, and a positive aesthetic experience, may be desirable in many channel projects. Such designs will reduce adverse environmental impacts of stream channel modifications. Analysis of variance for pool-to-pool spacing data suggests that there is no significant difference with respect to channel width between pools that form in natural streams and those in streams affected by a variety of human uses. Short of channelization, which changes the channel width, pools and riffles, within limits, are not particularly sensitive to environmental stress. Experiments in Gum Branch near Charlotte, North Carolina, support the hypothesis that channel form and process evolve in harmony and that manipulation of cross-channel morphology can influence the development of desired channel processes. Planned manipulation of its channel form induced Gum Branch to develop as desired. Morphologic stability consisting of incipient point bars, pools, and riffles was maintained over a period of high magnitude flood events, only to be degraded later by a wave of sediment derived from upstream construction and stream-bank failures. Thus, environmentally desirable channel morphology in urban streams cannot remain stable if changes in the sediment load or storm-water runoff exceed the limits of the stream's ability to make internal adjustments while maintaining morphologic stability.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians