内蒙古北山地区三个井辉长岩LA-ICP-MS 锆石U-Pb年龄及地球化学特征

内蒙古北山地区位于中亚造山带南缘中段,岩浆活动强烈。为了厘清北山地区的构造演化,对北山地区三个井辉长岩开展了年代学和地球化学研究。结果表明:其LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄为(404.9±1.6) Ma,形成年代为早泥盆世;岩石地球化学特征显示,岩石Al_2O_3含量高,为18.99%～21.12%(大于17%),岩石属高铝玄武岩类,轻、重稀土分馏明显,(La/Yb)_N为7.16～9.07,大离子亲石元素Rb、Ba、K和Sr明显富集,而高场强元素Ta、Nb和元素P亏损明显。上述特征表明三个井辉长岩的形成与俯冲带相关,结合区域地质特征,该辉长岩是沿红石山一带的主洋盆向南俯冲形成的早期岩浆弧的产物。     

内蒙古北山地区三个井辉长岩LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄及地球化学特征

内蒙古北山地区位于中亚造山带南缘中段,岩浆活动强烈。为了厘清北山地区的构造演化,对北山地区三个井辉长岩开展了年代学和地球化学研究。结果表明: 其LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄为(404.9±1.6) Ma,形成年代为早泥盆世; 岩石地球化学特征显示,岩石Al₂O₃含量高,为18.99%~21.12%(大于17%),岩石属高铝玄武岩类,轻、重稀土分馏明显,(La/Yb)_N为7.16~9.07,大离子亲石元素Rb、Ba、K和Sr明显富集,而高场强元素Ta、Nb和元素P亏损明显。上述特征表明三个井辉长岩的形成与俯冲带相关,结合区域地质特征,该辉长岩是沿红石山一带的主洋盆向南俯冲形成的早期岩浆弧的产物。     

东天山四顶黑山层状岩体岩石地球化学特征

位于东天山黄山岩带最东端的四顶黑山镁铁质-超镁铁质层状杂岩体规模较大,呈北东向展布,可分为南、北2个岩体。主要岩石类型有单辉橄榄岩、橄榄辉石岩、橄榄苏长辉长岩、橄榄辉长岩、辉石角闪岩、辉长岩和角闪辉长岩,超镁铁岩相常与辉长岩相呈韵律互层。主量元素化学组成主要属拉斑玄武岩系列。岩石稀土元素配分曲线呈平坦型以及Eu的正异常,普遍富集大离子亲石元素(Rb、Ba、U),显示明显的Sr正异常以及Nb、Ta的亏损。通过橄榄石最高的Fo值(79.6)估算出母岩浆中MgO和FeO含量分别为6.23%和6.60%。岩浆在演化过程中发生了橄榄石、斜方辉石、单斜辉石、斜长石的分离结晶/堆晶作用以及较弱的上地壳同化混染作用。岩石高的(La/Yb)N值1.550和1.744值表明岩浆源区的深度可能大于90km;Th/U值特征以及Th/Yb-Nb/Yb和La/Ba-La/Nb图解表明,四顶黑山岩体的岩浆源区可能为受俯冲作用改造的岩石圈地幔。     

新疆青河县阿克布拉克花岗闪长岩年代学、地球化学特征及其构造意义

阿克布拉克岩体位于新疆阿尔泰造山带中段青河县大青格里河昆格依特西南,岩性主要为花岗闪长岩。LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb分析结果表明其形成于早泥盆世(397.6±5.2)Ma,为阿尔泰造山带晚古生代早期大规模岩浆活动的产物。地球化学分析结果表明,该岩体SiO2含量为69.17%～74.70%,A/CNK值为0.97～1.09,属准铝质钙碱性-高钾钙碱性系列岩石。岩体富集K、Rb、Th、La、Ce、Nd等元素,相对亏损Ba、Nb、Ta、Ti、Sr等,微量元素蛛网图与稀土元素配分曲线均显示为明显的右倾型,正/负Eu异常均可见(δEu=0.58～1.23),其中花岗闪长岩多为负Eu异常,黑云母花岗闪长岩则全部为正Eu异常,应为岩浆结晶分异不同阶段的结果,与岛弧岩浆岩特征一致。结合前人研究成果,笔者认为阿尔泰造山带南缘早泥盆世阿克布拉克岩体形成于古亚洲洋俯冲背景下的陆缘弧构造环境,岩体中的暗色微粒包体及地球化学属性推断其为幔源基性岩浆底侵加热下地壳使之熔融,形成的混合岩浆分异演化的产物。     

东昆仑造山带低山头二长花岗岩形成时代及岩石地球化学特征

对东昆仑造山带中段低山头一带二长花岗岩体开展锆石U-Pb测年和岩石地球化学研究,获得二长花岗岩锆石U-Pb定年为(225.52±0.76)Ma,属晚三叠世印支期。岩石地球化学特征显示:Al_2O_3含量为14.73%～16.42%,里特曼组合指数σ43值为1.18～1.46,属钙碱性系列,K_2O/Na_2O1,具富钠贫钾的特点,A/NCK值主要为0.94～0.99,属偏铝质岩浆岩;大离子亲石元素(LILE)富集Rb、K、Sr、Ba,高场强元素(HFSE)富集Th、U、La、Ce,而Nb、Ti明显亏损;其轻重稀土比值LREE/HREE为6.06～16.98,δCe为0.95～0.99,显示为负异常,(La/Yb)_N为7.46～28.35,轻稀土显示富集;δEu在0.51～0.92,总体属Eu亏损型;Eu负异常特征显示岩浆分异明显。岩体属I型花岗岩,结合构造环境判别图解,综合判断低山头一带二长花岗岩属东昆仑中段晚三叠世火山弧型花岗岩。     

青海东昆仑东段加当橄榄辉长岩锆石U-Pb年代学、地球化学及地质意义

东昆仑古特提斯域镁铁—超镁铁质岩石的研究极为薄弱,对青海东昆仑东段加当橄榄辉长岩进行岩相学、年代学和地球化学分析,以期为东昆仑晚古生代—早中生代构造岩浆演化提供新的约束。利用LA-ICPMS锆石U-Pb定年技术,获得橄榄辉长岩加权平均年龄为249.7±3.0Ma(n=21,MSWD=0.105),表明岩体形成时代为早三叠世。岩石地球化学研究表明,加当橄榄辉长岩具有高Al_2O_3(14.71%~18.60%)、低TiO_2(0.07%~0.19%)、贫P2O5(0.02%)、低碱(K_2O+Na_2O=1.65%~2.01%)及Na_2OK_2O的特征,属亚碱性辉长岩。岩石微量元素总体上富集大离子亲石元素(LILE:Rb、Sr、Ba、Th、K)和Pb,相对亏损高场强元素(HFSE:Nb、Ta、P、Zr、Ti),稀土元素总量较低,ΣREE=9.79×10~(-6)~12.55×10~(-6),(La/Yb)N为5.61~28.51,平均11.43,显示轻稀土富集的特征,δEu=1.64~2.48,具有明显的Eu正异常。根据地球化学特征和微量元素判别图解,橄榄辉长岩源区为被俯冲改造的岩石圈幔源岩浆,岩浆在演化过程中遭受了上地壳物质的同化混染,并经历了一定程度的结晶分异作用。结合东昆仑区域构造演化,认为加当橄榄辉长岩是早三叠世阿尼玛卿古特提斯洋北向俯冲阶段岩浆活动的产物。     

甘肃北山二叠纪镁铁- 超镁铁质岩体地质、地球化学特征及铜镍成矿潜力

北山造山带是中亚造山带南缘镁铁- 超镁铁质岩体的集中分布区之一，因其赋含二叠纪铜镍硫化物矿床而受到广泛关注。以往的研究多集中在北山造山带西部的新疆坡北地区，近年来随着对甘肃北山地区二叠纪镁铁- 超镁铁岩体认识逐渐深入，新发现的矿化岩体有逐渐向东延伸的趋势。本文选择北山造山带中东部柳园地区骆驼山和西南山两个典型含铜镍硫化物岩体进行地质年代学、岩相学和岩石地球化学及同位素地球化学研究。岩体主要岩相包括橄榄岩相、辉石岩相、橄榄辉长岩相、橄长岩相和辉长岩相，其中硫化物主要出现在橄榄岩相和辉石岩相中。骆驼山岩体辉长岩锆石的U- Pb年龄为282. 6 Ma，与坡北地区矿化岩体的形成时代一致。骆驼山和西南山岩体母岩浆稀土元素配分模式为轻微右倾型，富集大离子亲石元素，强烈亏损高场强元素Nb- Ta，中等亏损Zr- Hf，与坡北和东天山地区同时代矿化岩体母岩浆特征相似。岩体具有较高的全岩εNd(t)值(+0. 42~+6. 10)和锆石εHf(t)值(+7. 9~+14. 1)的特征，与坡北地区矿化岩体类似，表明具有相似的亏损地幔源区。橄榄石Fo值与Ni含量的关系和母岩浆微量元素Cu/Zr比值特征表明岩浆在橄榄石结晶过程中发生了硫化物熔离。同位素模拟计算表明母岩浆在上升侵位过程中发生了约5%~15%的地壳物质混染，可能是岩浆硫饱和的主要原因。相同的成岩成矿时代、相似的岩石地球化学特征、母岩浆特征及硫化物饱和机制，表明甘肃北山地区二叠纪镁铁- 超镁铁质岩体具有与坡北地区类似的成矿潜力，为在北山地区中东部进一步寻找铜镍硫化物矿床提供了重要信息。     

新疆北部乌恰沟地区镁铁质侵入岩的年代学、地球化学和Sr-Nd-Pb同位素组成：对地幔源区特征和深部过程的约束

阿尔泰造山带东段的乌恰沟地区发育大量镁铁质侵入岩(岩脉或小岩体),包括闪长玢岩和具堆积结构的角闪辉长岩和橄榄辉长岩。锆石SHRIMP U-Ph同位素定年结果说明这些镁铁质岩浆的侵位时间为257．4±5．3Ma,与峨眉山玄武岩相近(259±3Ma)。在微量元素原始地幔标准化图上,它们共同的特征是富集大离子亲石元素,亏损Nb和Ta,具K和Pb的正异常,LREE相对HREE富集,即具弧火山岩的地球化学特征。同时它们之间还存在互补的地球化学特征,如闪长玢岩存在Ba、Sr、Eu、P和Ti的负异常,橄榄辉长岩具有Ba、Sr、Eu、P的正异常,而角闪辉长岩具有Ti的正异常。如果扣除围岩混染和后期流体交代的影响,这些岩石的Sr-Nd-Pb同位素组成基本一致,因此闪长玢岩和两种辉长岩分别代表同源岩浆因结晶分离作用形成的演化岩浆和堆晶岩。乌恰沟晚二叠世镁铁质侵入岩和新疆北部早二叠世与铜镍矿有关的基性-超基性杂岩体都具有与弧火山岩相似的地球化学特征,反映了被俯冲改造的陆下岩石圈地幔的地球化学特征。但是与后者相比,前者的Mg~#值、ε_(Nd)(t)值和La/Nb比明显偏低,暗示存在软流圈地幔来源物质的显著贡献。综合阿尔泰乌恰沟地区镁铁质侵入岩的年代学、地球化学和同位素组成特征,我们推测该区在晚二叠世存在地幔柱与岩石圈地幔之间的相互作用。     

内蒙古基东地区晚泥盆世辉长岩体岩石地球化学特征及其意义

内蒙古基东地区辉长岩体位于北山成矿带北侧的石板井-七一山-呼伦西伯成矿带西北缘。该辉长岩体的岩石类型主要为辉长岩,次为角闪辉长岩,少量为辉长闪长岩。对辉长岩体进行了LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb测年以及主微量元素等分析。研究结果显示:辉长岩体形成于晚泥盆世(D3),其LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄为(371.3±2.0)Ma。辉长岩体主量元素表现出富Al[w(Al2O3)=17.94%～20.93%]、高Na[w(Na2O)=2.08%～3.75%]和低K[w(K2O)=0.16%～0.98%]的岩石地球化学特征,属钙碱性系列。稀土元素配分模式为LREE富集的右倾型,其(La/Yb)N比值为1.92～4.62,无铈异常(Ce/Ce*=1.00～1.11),部分具正Eu异常(Eu/Eu*=1.08～2.20)。微量元素比值蛛网图表现出P、Ti的亏损和Sr的富集。辉长岩体形成于岩浆弧环境,属白山晚古生代岩浆弧的组成部分,是红石山大洋向南俯冲所形成的岩浆产物。     

东昆仑浪木日镁铁质-超镁铁质岩成因：锆石U-Pb年代学和Sr-Nd-Hf同位素特征

浪木日镁铁质-超镁铁质岩体位于东昆仑造山带东段,临近昆中断裂,主要由橄榄岩、橄榄辉石岩、辉石岩和辉长岩组成,且局部发育星点状和浸染状硫化物矿化。辉石岩和橄榄辉石岩获得的锆石U-Pb年龄分别为(421.2±1.2)Ma和(421.10±0.96)Ma,表明岩体侵位于晚志留世。岩石地球化学特征显,浪木日镁铁质-超镁铁质岩具有较高的Mg^#(Mg^#>80),富集LILE(Rb、Th、U等),亏损HFSE(Nb、Ta、Ti等),轻、重稀土元素分馏程度较强((La/Yb)_N=6.28～50.91,(La/Sm)_N=1.45～4.15,(Gd/Yb)_N=1.43～9.71),具有弱的负Eu异常(δEu=0.226～0.824)。锆石Lu-Hf(ε_Hf(t)=-2.9～-10)和全岩Sr-Nd(ε_Nd(t)=-10.3～-8.9)同位素特征显示,其岩浆源区主要来自富集地幔,与俯冲洋壳脱水交代上覆地幔楔活动有关。综合研究表明,浪木日镁铁质-超镁铁...     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Pools,riffles, and channelization

The addition of regularly spaced deeps (pools) and shallows (riffles) that provide a variety of flow conditions, areal sorting of stream-bed material, cover for wildlife, and a positive aesthetic experience, may be desirable in many channel projects. Such designs will reduce adverse environmental impacts of stream channel modifications. Analysis of variance for pool-to-pool spacing data suggests that there is no significant difference with respect to channel width between pools that form in natural streams and those in streams affected by a variety of human uses. Short of channelization, which changes the channel width, pools and riffles, within limits, are not particularly sensitive to environmental stress. Experiments in Gum Branch near Charlotte, North Carolina, support the hypothesis that channel form and process evolve in harmony and that manipulation of cross-channel morphology can influence the development of desired channel processes. Planned manipulation of its channel form induced Gum Branch to develop as desired. Morphologic stability consisting of incipient point bars, pools, and riffles was maintained over a period of high magnitude flood events, only to be degraded later by a wave of sediment derived from upstream construction and stream-bank failures. Thus, environmentally desirable channel morphology in urban streams cannot remain stable if changes in the sediment load or storm-water runoff exceed the limits of the stream's ability to make internal adjustments while maintaining morphologic stability.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians