地球下地幔矿物结构和热力学参数的研究进展与展望

下地幔从660 km到2 891 km深度,占据整个地球质量的49.2%并处于极端高温高压的状态。在下地幔相应的温度压力条件下研究主要构成矿物的物理性质,尤其是结构、密度和波速,是理解下地幔结构、物质组成以及动力学过程的关键。通过回顾过去30年高温高压矿物学实验对下地幔矿物,包括布里基曼石、铁方镁石、Ca-钙钛矿以及硅酸盐—后钙钛矿结构和热力学状态方程的重要研究进展,探讨温压条件变化、成分变化以及Fe自旋变化对这些下地幔矿物(相)密度和体波波速的影响,指出现有研究结果的不足和需要解决的问题,并对未来的研究方向提出展望。     

俯冲物质深地幔循环——地球动力学研究的一个新方向

地球上发生的各种地壳运动,大规模的火山喷发,不同深度不同规模的地震活动,规模宏大的山脉和高原的形成,以及地球历史上发生的大陆漂移运动,都被认为与板块构造活动密切相关。但这些运动的动力源究竟来自何方?如何去发现和证明它们的存在以及从理论上去认识和解释,是当今地球科学面临的巨大挑战,也是今后很长一段时间内地球科学的前沿和热点问题。近些年,人们通过各种方法,试图从更深部寻找板块作用动力学的证据。首先是地震层析研究取得了很大进展,获得了许多区域性和全球的高分辨率3-D地震地幔波速结构,使得我们得以认识地球深部的结构,探讨地幔的物质组成,流体的作用和动力学过程。证据显示,板块俯冲不仅可以到达地幔过渡带深度,而且可达到下地幔底部,堆积在核幔边界的上部,成为核幔边界产生的地幔柱的重要物质组成。其次是开展了大量的实验岩石学研究,模拟了一系列地球深部的高温高压矿物组合,被认为可能代表了地幔过渡带和下地幔的矿物组合,甚至核幔边界的含水矿物组合。另一方面,计算机模拟实验揭示了冷的大洋岩石圈发生深俯冲是可行的。尤为重要的是,许多来自地幔过渡带甚至下地幔深度的高压矿物已经在自然界陆续被发现,证明其中一些矿物是源自深俯冲的洋壳物质,记录了俯冲洋壳再循环的历史,如产在巴西、南非和加拿大等金伯利岩中的超深金刚石矿物包裹体。此外,洋岛玄武岩和大陆板内玄武岩的研究,也找到了早期俯冲下去的壳源岩石的同位素证据。近些年发现的蛇绿岩型金刚石是另一实证,其金刚石碳同位素和包裹体研究表明它们源自早期俯冲下去的壳源物质,被认为是研究俯冲物质深部再循环的一个新窗口。这些俯冲再循环的物质,被认为是通过地幔柱的活动从深部带至浅表。本文综述了地球深部物质循环的研究现状,强调了该研究的重要性,并认为俯冲物质深部循环是地球动力学研究的一个新方向。     

地幔中水的存在形式和含水量

水以含水变质矿物、无水硅酸盐矿物(橄榄石、辉石等)及其高压结构相(β橄榄石、γ橄榄石、钙钛矿相、方镁铁矿等)、高密度含水镁硅酸盐和熔体的形式存在于地幔各层圈中。根据各类玄武岩水含量推断出的上地幔源区的水含量,和由地幔岩主要矿物———橄榄石的水含量估算出的上地幔水含量(质量分数)很接近,在0.02%左右。以橄榄石和辉石高压相的水含量为依据,进行了过渡带和下地幔水含量的估算,其结果是:过渡带和下地幔上部的水含量(质量分数)为1.48%,下地幔下部水含量(质量分数)为0.21%。据此,计算出的地幔各层圈的总水量表明,地幔水的74%以上存在于过渡带和下地幔上部。将地幔总水量和现代海洋总水量之和作为地球总水量,计算出现代海洋总水量约占全球总水量(质量分数)的6.6%,这个结果与笔者根据地球的球粒陨石成分模型计算出的总水量(6%)十分接近。     

深部熔融与深部熔体的演化

<正>地幔熔融主要发生在上地幔的浅部,生成以玄武岩为主的幔源岩浆。然而,实验岩石学和金刚石中的矿物包裹体证据都说明,由于再循环地壳物质具有较低的固相线温度,低程度熔融可以在地幔更深处发生(上地幔下部,地幔过渡带或者下地幔),生成少量碳酸盐熔体。然而,目前人们对这种深部熔体上升过程中如何演化还知之甚少。这里我们利用山东的一组新生代霞石岩质火山的时空分布和地球化学特征上的     

西藏蛇绿岩中不寻常的地幔矿物群

在西藏雅鲁藏布江蛇绿岩的铬铁矿中，首次发现由100余种（亚种）矿物组成的地幔矿物群，其中包括：自然元素，合金，氧化物，硫（砷）化物和硅酸盐。根据实验资料，其中一部分是超高压成因矿物。可能来自地球核-幔边界，是地球外核与下地幔底部硅酸盐之间化学反应的产物，另一部分矿物可能来自下地幔，过渡带和上地幔。西藏地幔矿物群，无论在矿物学和地球动力学上均有重要意义。     

地球内部结构水含量的估算

深部地球中的结构水以其独特的物理和化学性质影响着一系列地球化学和地球动力学过程。本文根据近年来地球内部含水性研究的进展,对地幔的储水能力进行估算,得出上地幔平均含水0.03%,其储水能力约为海洋水的0.12倍。水在地幔过渡带矿物中的溶解度较高(约1.53%),使得地幔过渡带储水能力约为海洋水的4～5倍,下地幔矿物的含水性研究目前还存在很大的争议,高温高压水溶性实验、理论计算以及地球物理方法等均不能对其进行很好的限制。现阶段已有的研究数据表明,下地幔矿物的含水量相对较低(约0.13%),但由于下地幔庞大的体积和质量,使得其储水能力是海洋水的2～3倍,整个地幔平均含水约0.26%,其储水能力约为海洋水的6～8倍。为了估算整个地球内部各圈层的储水能力,本文基于Murakami关于地球起源于碳质球粒陨石,其含水量约2%的结论,估算得出地核的储水能力约为海洋水的76.8倍,进而推断地核中可能含有0.6%左右的氢元素。     

CaSiO_3-钙钛矿的热力学状态方程

<正>地震学观测对了解地球深内部的结构、物质组成具有重要意义。高温高压矿物学实验为理解地震学观测,确定地球内部的物质组成提供重要的实验依据。我们的研究集中在利用高温高压实验手段,为描绘下地幔的密度和速度结构提供更为准确的实验数据。该项研究的对象是下地幔最为重要的矿物之一——CaSiO3-钙钛矿。CaSiO3-钙钛矿在下地幔的体积分数约为8%。因高温高压原位实验研究的缺乏,致使我们无法准确获取温度对热力学状态方程影响的信息     

下地幔布里基曼石的铁自旋态及其地球物理意义

<正>根据地幔岩模型,下地幔主要由于布里基曼石[(Mg,Fe)(Fe,Si,Al)O3)]、铁方镁石[(Mg,Fe)O]、Ca-钙钛矿组成。Badro et al.,2003利用X光发射光谱发现,下地幔铁方镁石中的铁在高压下会经历电子的自旋转变[1]。随即发现,铁在下地幔矿物中的自旋转变会带来一系列物理性质的改变,如密度、弹性模量、波速、热传导系数以及电导率等[2]。在过去的十几年中,研究铁在下地幔矿物中的自旋态,以及自旋转变对下地     

核幔边界条件下MgSiO_3熔体的密度

正地球深部物质的密度差异影响着地球结构的分层特征以及物质的迁移方式,是理解深部地球动力学行为的关键因素。对于地幔来说,硅酸盐熔体和矿物之间的密度差异决定了熔体的居留位置。但是下地幔压力条件下熔体密度的测定一直是个技术难题。     

地球深部碱性元素地球化学行为:来自陨石高压矿物的证据

近年来在球粒陨石冲击脉体中陆续发现了一些天然高压新矿物和矿物组合，这些发现为地球深部碱性元素的地球化学行为的研究提供了重要依据。在地幔过渡带温度和压力条件下，钠和钙离子优先结合到镁铁－镁铝榴石固溶体和长石高压多形之中，钾离子则选择性地进入到长石高压多形中，副矿物涂氏磷钙石是Na、Ba、Sr和轻稀土等元素的潜在载体相。天然冲击变质球粒陨石为我们提供了探索过渡带和下地幔温度、压力条件下碱性元素载体相特征的重要自然界样品。     

地球内部物理和演化的几个核心论题：I.地球内部结构和物理性质

本文综述研究地球内部结构和物理特性的几种常见规方法和主要研究结果,并首重讨论地球物理状态方程,地震成象,综合反演,高温高压实验和有关对比研究方法,均匀各向同性球对球模型仍不失其参考意义,但最新研究结果表明,地球内部状态是非均匀和各向异性的,横向不均匀对称地球模型仍不其参考意义,但最新研究结果表明,地球内部状态是非均匀和各向异性的,横向不均匀性主要表现在上地幔部分,下地幔和液态外核似乎比较均匀,但核－幔边界过渡带(D″)可能代表一个内含非均匀化学边界的热边界层,其形态起伏和横向变化影响地球模壁的球对称性。3-D地震成象实质上反映地震波建与温度异常的关系．而温度变化又会引起密度异常,因而密度变化是控制地幔对流的关键参数之一。     

地幔转换带中的水及其地球动力学意义

综述了近20年国际上地幔转换带中水的研究进展。前人研究表明,地球深部的水主要以OH-(hy-droxyl)形式存储在名义上无水矿物(NAMs)中。高温高压实验研究表明,地幔转换带中的主要矿物均具有较高的储水能力,且在转换带的温压条件下,其储水能力随着温度的升高而降低,其中瓦兹利石(β-Ol)和林伍德石(γ-Ol)的储水能力为2%～3%,超硅石榴子石(Mj)的储水能力为0.1%左右,据此估算地幔转换带的储水能力约为1.2%～1.91%,是地表水总量的3.9～6.2倍;而转换带除外的上地幔和下地幔主要矿物的含水量或储水能力均小于0.1%,因此与上、下地幔相比,地幔转换带可能是地幔的主要储水库。尽管地幔转换带具有较强的储水能力,但对地幔转换带的实际含水量还存在干、湿两方面的地质和地球物理证据和争议。地幔转换带中的水会对转换带中一系列的过程产生重要影响,当水含量增加时,橄榄石(Ol)向β-Ol、γ-Ol分解以及超硅石榴石的分解反应分别向低压、高压和低压方向迁移,从而由橄榄石向β-Ol和γ-Ol分解两个相变反应界定的转换带宽度也会增加;水还会使地幔深部的部分熔融温度降低,熔体的密度降低;同时,水的加入可以很好地解释地幔岩"pyrolite"模型在410km不连续面处产生的与地震波测量不相符突变,也可以解决全地幔对流模式所不能解释的地幔成分分层问题。因此,深入研究和探讨转换带中的水对地球深部动力学过程的影响,包括中国东部地区受太平洋板块深俯冲作用的影响,均具有重要的约束和研究意义。     

Decompression and unmixing of crystals included in diamonds from the mantle transition zone

A suite of exceptional mineral inclusions in diamonds from the São Luiz river, Juina province, Brazil, shows a wide range of garnet/majorite mineral compositions co-existing with clinopyroxene; the overall bulk compositions are eclogitic. The inclusions have a wide variety of textural arrangements, but crystallographic data obtained by EBSD shows that each inclusion consists of a single garnet with constant crystallographic orientation whilst clinopyroxene grains have preferred orientation with relation to garnet {110} and <111>. This suggests that the inclusions were originally single phase majoritic garnets, and that they preserve various states of progressive unmixing (exsolution) into lower pressure garnet and clinopyroxene compositions during transport of the host diamonds towards the Earth’s surface. On the basis of high pressure–temperature experimental data some of the original majoritic garnets must have come from depths of 450 km or more, and therefore resided in the transition zone and asthenospheric upper mantle. Particularly extensive re-equilibration of many inclusions took place at depths of ca 180–200 km (probably close to the base of the continental lithosphere). The partially unmixed state of the inclusions provides a unique opportunity for using mineral diffusion data to roughly estimate the rate of transport through the asthenospheric upper mantle, and within error this rate is found to be broadly compatible with expected transport rates by upper mantle convection or plume flow.     

An approach to the geologic history of the Earth’s mantle geospheres

The geospheres that make up the Earth’s mantle, i.e., the upper, middle, and lower mantle, as well as dividing zones of discontinuity, are autonomous geological bodies whose geologic history is poorly known. The data on evolution of planetary magmatism and mineral transformations along the Earth’s radius, thermobaric information on the Earth’s interior, and new geodynamic reconstructions are used to outline the geologic history of deep geospheres. In broad terms, we suggest that layer D″, the lower mantle, and the Eoarchean basic protocrust were the first to be formed after differentiation of the protoplanetary material. The sialic crust appeared in the Paleoarchean. The system that comprised layer D″ the lower mantle, and discontinuity II was formed later, ～2.6 Ga ago, while the upper mantle and discontinuity I originated ca. 1.6–1.7 Ga ago. Thus, the within-mantle geospheres were formed in their present-day appearance over a long period of time.     

Deep mantle roots and continental emergence: implications for whole-Earth elemental cycling,long-term climate,and the Cambrian explosion

Elevations on Earth are dominantly controlled by crustal buoyancy, primarily through variations in crustal thickness: continents ride higher than ocean basins because they are underlain by thicker crust. Mountain building, where crust is magmatically or tectonically thickened, is thus key to making continents. However, most of the continents have long passed their mountain building origins, having since subsided back to near sea level. The elevations of the old, stable continents are lower than that expected for their crustal thicknesses, requiring a subcrustal component of negative buoyancy that develops after mountain building. While initial subsidence is driven by crustal erosion, thermal relaxation through growth of a cold thermal boundary layer provides the negative buoyancy that causes continents to subside further. The maximum thickness of this thermal boundary layer is controlled by the thickness of a chemically and rheologically distinct continental mantle root, formed during large-scale mantle melting billions of years ago. The final resting elevation of a stabilized continent is controlled by the thickness of this thermal boundary layer and the temperature of the Earth’s mantle, such that continents ride higher in a cooler mantle and lower in a hot mantle. Constrained by the thermal history of the Earth, continents are predicted to have been mostly below sea level for most of Earth’s history, with areas of land being confined to narrow strips of active mountain building. Large-scale emergence of stable continents occurred late in Earth’s history (Neoproterozoic) over a 100–300 million year transition, irreversibly altering the surface of the Earth in terms of weathering, climate, biogeochemical cycling and the evolution of life. Climate during the transition would be expected to be unstable, swinging back and forth between icehouse and greenhouse states as higher order fluctuations in mantle dynamics would cause the Earth to fluctuate rapidly between water and terrestrial worlds.     

地幔转换带:地球深部研究的重要方向

地幔转换带是联系上下地幔的纽带,对于认识整个地幔的组成和演化、地幔对流、岩石圈深俯冲及深源地震等地球深部动力学问题具有重要意义。一般认为,转换带地震不连续面主要与橄榄石的高压相变密切相关。最新的高温高压实验研究表明,地幔中非橄榄石组分的相变,如辉石和石榴子石的相变,对不连续面的深度和宽度以及转换带内的波速和密度梯度也起到很大的影响。另外地幔全岩成分、端员组分、温度和水也对相变和不连续面具有重要影响,这些精细的实验研究成果更好地解释了转换带地震不连续面一些相对局部的性质和变化,促进了我们对地球深部性质和动力学过程的了解。因为缺少直接来自地球深部的样品,而地球物理和地球化学研究也有它们的相对局限性,所以高温高压实验仍然是我们了解地球深部成分和性质的重要手段之一。     

Origin of sub-lithospheric diamonds from the Juina-5 kimberlite (Brazil): constraints from carbon isotopes and inclusion compositions

Forty-one diamonds sourced from the Juina-5 kimberlite pipe in Southern Brazil, which contain optically identifiable inclusions, have been studied using an integrated approach. The diamonds contain <20 ppm nitrogen (N) that is fully aggregated as B centres. Internal structures in several diamonds revealed using cathodoluminescence (CL) are unlike those normally observed in lithospheric samples. The majority of the diamonds are composed of isotopically light carbon, and the collection has a unimodal distribution heavily skewed towards δ¹³C ~ ?25 ‰. Individual diamonds can display large carbon isotope heterogeneity of up to ~15 ‰ and predominantly have isotopically lighter cores displaying blue CL, and heavier rims with green CL. The light carbon isotopic compositions are interpreted as evidence of diamond growth from abiotic organic carbon added to the oceanic crust during hydrothermal alteration. The bulk isotopic composition of the oceanic crust, carbonates plus organics, is equal to the composition of mantle carbon (?5 ‰), and we suggest that recycling/mixing of subducted material will replenish this reservoir over geological time. Several exposed, syngenetic inclusions have bulk compositions consistent with former eclogitic magnesium silicate perovskite, calcium silicate perovskite and NAL or CF phases that have re-equilibrated during their exhumation to the surface. There are multiple occurrences of majoritic garnet with pyroxene exsolution, coesite with and without kyanite exsolution, clinopyroxene, Fe or Fe-carbide and sulphide minerals alongside single occurrences of olivine and ferropericlase. As a group, the inclusions have eclogitic affinity and provide evidence for diamond formation at pressures extending to Earth’s deep transition zone and possibly the lower mantle. It is observed that the major element composition of inclusions and isotopic compositions of host Juina-5 diamonds are not correlated. The diamond and inclusion compositions are intimately related to subducted material and record a polybaric growth history across a depth interval stretching from the lower mantle to the base of the lithosphere. It is suggested that the interaction of slab-derived melts and mantle material combined with subsequent upward transport in channelised networks or a buoyant diapir explains the formation of Juina-5 diamonds. We conclude that these samples, despite originating at great mantle depths, do not provide direct information about the ambient mantle, instead, providing a snapshot of the Earth’s deep carbon cycle.     

Metallogenic characteristics of the region of Northwest Hebei and analysis of ore prospecting potential in its peripheries

The region of Northwest Hebei is an area where Au-Ag polymetallic ore depsits are concentrated in Hebei Province. There were divided the Au ore-concentrated region with the magmatic-metamorphic diamictite zone as the center and the perpheral cover-strata zone and Ag-polymetallic metallogenic zone along the line of Xuanhua-Songli-Chicheng. Research on mantle branch structure indicates that Au-Ag polymetallic ore-forming materials come mainly from the deep interior of the Earth. The ore-forming materials tend to migrate upwards through the multi-stage evolution of mantle plume, and are concentrated as ores in the favourable tectonic expansion zone of a mantle branch structure. As viewed in plane, from the center to the periphery and as viewed in space, from the lower part to the upper part there exists Au-Ag-Pb-Zn zonation, as evidenced by drilling data from a number of mines. So, there is still great potential for ore prospecting in the region of Northwest Hebei.