Assessment of rock slope stability along the proposed Ankara–Pozantı autoroad in Turkey

 The main objective of this study is the determination of the slope stability and excavatability category of discontinuous rock exposed between 53+000 and 58+000 km of the proposed Ankara–Pozantı autoroad in Turkey to provide secure access. The study area is mostly in the outcrops of highly jointed sandstone with minor layers of marl. This Maastrichtian–Eocene Group also contains conglomerate and limestone bands of flysch character called the Pas˙ada* Group. Quaternary alluvial deposits occur throughout the site. The area was divided into four design sectors based on cut slope locations. Rock slope stability was assessed kinematically as well as through utilizing limit equilibrium analyses. The excavation category was determined to range from hard to extremely hard ripping. Remedial measures for unstable rock slopes are discussed. Received: 22 July 1997 · Accepted: 14 April 1998     

Evaluation of rock excavatability and slope stability along a segment of motorway,Pozanti, Turkey

The Çiftehan-Pozant segment of the Ankara-Pozant motorway is problematic due to the existence of lithological units with variable character. Seven cut slopes are planned along Km 358+000– Km 364+350 of the proposed motorway. The purpose of this study is to determine engineering geological properties of the rocks exposed along the motorway and to assess the excavatability and stability of the cut slopes. Both field and laboratory studies were carried out during this study. Field studies involved geological mapping, detailed discontinuity surveying and sampling. Laboratory tests were carried out to determine unit weight, point load strength index and shear strength parameters of the discontinuities. In the study area, recrystallized limestone, microgabbro, conglomerate and Quaternary deposits are exposed. However, the cut slopes are located within microgabbro and conglomerate. Hard to very hard ripping with local blasting for the fresh inner part of the rocks is recommended for the excavatability. In two cut slopes wedge failure is expected, whereas in another two slopes both wedge and toppling failures are likely to occur. Based on the field observations and stability analyses of the cut slopes, slope flattening with various angles, wire mesh, and drainage ditches are proposed.     

Rock slope stability and excavatability assessment of rocks at the Kapikaya dam site,Turkey

This paper presents the slope stability and excavatability assessment of rocks at the Kapikaya dam site that contains diabases. Both field and laboratory studies were carried out. The field study involved detailed discontinuity surveys. Laboratory tests were carried out to determine uniaxial compressive strength, Young's modulus, unit weight, point load strength index and shear strength parameters of discontinuities.Kinematical and numerical analyses were performed to determine right and left slopes at the dam site. According to kinematical analyses, the types of planar and wedge failure are not expected at the site. Also, shear strength reduction analyses was carried out using Phase² for the right and left slopes at the dam site. According to results of numerical analysis, Strength Reduction Factor (SRF) of the right and left slopes are 8.08 and 6.5 respectively and any rotational failure will not occur. The excavation category of the diabases was determined as easy ripping for the right slope and easy-hard ripping for the left slope.     

Numerical Modelling of Steep Slopes in Open Rock Quarries

The key question regarding steep rock slopes along rock quarries is their stability because a rock slope failure can have critical results. In this study, the aim is to investigate the areas with potential risk for jointed karstic limestones in a rock quarry. First, to determine rock mass properties, scan-line surveys were performed, and the major orientations of discontinuities were analyzed using stereographic projection. Then, the physicomechanical properties of the slope-forming rock were determined in the laboratory, and geomechanical properties of the rock mass were determined using an empirical failure criterion. Finally, the quarry slope stability was assessed in accordance with numerical modelling. According to the results obtained, the numerical modelling of steep rock slopes can be efficiently evaluated by using finite element method. Beside this, the presence of joints intersecting the main discontinuity sets, the filling materials of discontinuities resulting from weathering of limestone and surface deposits, surcharge load due to mine waste dumped on the slopes and excavation blasting during construction of quarry area play a key role when modelling the steep rock slopes by using finite element method.     

Cut Slope Design Recommendations for Sub-Horizontal Hard Sedimentary Rock Units in Ohio, USA

Although most cut slopes in Ohio consist of inter-layered, sub-horizontal units of hard and soft sedimentary rocks (sandstone, limestone, dolostone, shale, claystone, mudstone), slopes consisting of relatively thick hard rock units are not uncommon. Design of stable cut slopes in hard rock units needs to consider rock mass strength and orientation of discontinuities with respect to slope face. Results of kinematic stability analyses show that hard-rock cut slopes are less likely to have conventional plane and wedge failures, caused by unfavorable orientation of discontinuities. The main cause of failure is identified to be the undercutting-induced toppling, which is not amenable to traditional kinematic or rock mass strength-based analyses. Therefore, to recommend a suitable slope angle, numerical models, using UDEC software, were employed to study how various slope angles affect the process of undercutting-induced toppling failures. The UDEC models showed a slope angle of 45° (1H:1 V) to be the most stable angle. However, a 63° (0.5H:1 V) slope angle can significantly reduce the potential for such failures and is therefore more appropriate than the widely used angle of 76° (0.25H:1 V).     

Effects of Rock Properties on Specific Cutting Energy in Linear Cutting of Sandstones by Picks

Summary. Specific cutting energy (SE) has been widely used to assess the rock cuttability for mechanical excavation purposes. Some prediction models were developed for SE through correlating rock properties with SE values. However, some of the textural and compositional rock parameters i.e. texture coefficient and feldspar, mafic, and felsic mineral contents were not considered. The present study is to investigate the effects of previously ignored rock parameters along with engineering rock properties on SE. Mineralogical and petrographic analyses, rock mechanics, and linear rock cutting tests were performed on sandstone samples taken from sites around Ankara, Turkey. Relationships between SE and rock properties were evaluated using bivariate correlation and linear regression analyses. The tests and subsequent analyses revealed that the texture coefficient and feldspar content of sandstones affected rock cuttability, evidenced by significant correlations between these parameters and SE at a 90% confidence level. Felsic and mafic mineral contents of sandstones did not exhibit any statistically significant correlation against SE. Cementation coefficient, effective porosity, and pore volume had good correlations against SE. Poisson’s ratio, Brazilian tensile strength, Shore scleroscope hardness, Schmidt hammer hardness, dry density, and point load strength index showed very strong linear correlations against SE at confidence levels of 95% and above, all of which were also found suitable to be used in predicting SE individually, depending on the results of regression analysis, ANOVA, Student’s t-tests, and R² values. Poisson’s ratio exhibited the highest correlation with SE and seemed to be the most reliable SE prediction tool in sandstones.     

The effect of pH and salty solutions on durability of sandstones of the Aghajari Formation in Khouzestan province,southwest of Iran

Slake durability of rocks is a vital engineering geological property of rock materials that has an important role in the promotion of slope stability, evaluation of rock materials, as well as the estimation of stone degradability. This parameter is related to such factors as mineralogy, physical characteristics of rocks, and the environmental conditions. A major part of south and southwestern Iran embraces the Aghajari Formation whose sandstones are used to form the foundations for some structures in Khouzestan province where they are being extensively used as aggregate(s). In this paper, tests of mineralogical examinations, physical properties, and slake durability of sandstones from Ahwaz and Haftkel anticlines were administered in order to assess the durability and degradability of these rocks. The rock durability of each type was evaluated to be up to 15 cycles in acidic and alkaline watery environments and salt aqueous solutions. The results showed that durability of sandstones under study is related to their petrographical and physical characteristics. The durability index of the sandstone samples was decreased by pH reduction and by increasing the concentration of aqueous solutions. The durability index of Ahwaz samples, too, was decreased in basic solutions while this index increased for Haftkel sandstones with the increase in the pH of solutions. Also, the obtained results illustrated that durability index decreased with the increase in the number of cycles. Based on the results, all sandstones show that the durability in sodium sulfate solution is much lower than that for the sodium chloride. Moreover, the slake durability index of the sandstones is decreased with an increase in the concentration of aqueous solutions. As a final statement, the Ahwaz sandstones show lower resistance to weathering processes than Haftkel sandstones; therefore, the use of rocks as building stones is not recommended here.     

顺层高边坡开挖松动区研究

开挖顺层岩石高边坡,往往需要进行预加固,因而合理确定坡体开挖松动区范围便成为核心问题。根据坡体开挖后的应力和位移状态,给出了开挖松动区的明确定义;结合重庆万州-梁平高速公路沿线各顺层高边坡失稳实例,对顺层高边坡开挖松动区进行了研究,简述了松动区的特点,分析了开挖松动区的影响因素。从岩体结构出发,以开挖深度和岩层倾角为主控元素,对顺层高边坡开挖松动区的长度进行了统计分析,结果表明：岩层倾角在15～30°的砂泥岩顺层高边坡最易产生开挖失稳,且松动区长度与开挖深度有关,二者比值较为集中地分布在2～5之间。     

Probabilistic analysis of rock slope stability and random properties of discontinuity parameters, Interstate Highway 40, Western North Carolina, USA

Probabilistic analysis has been used as an effective tool to evaluate uncertainty so prevalent in variables governing rock slope stability. In this study a probabilistic analysis procedure and related algorithms were developed by extending the Monte Carlo simulation. The approach was used to analyze rock slope stability for Interstate Highway 40 (I-40), North Carolina, USA. This probabilistic approach consists of two parts: analysis of available geotechnical data to obtain random properties of discontinuity parameters; and probabilistic analysis of slope stability based on parameters with random properties. Random geometric and strength parameters for discontinuities were derived from field measurements and analysis using the statistical inference method or obtained from experience and engineering judgment of parameters. Specifically, this study shows that a certain amount of experience and engineering judgment can be utilized to determine random properties of discontinuity parameters. Probabilistic stability analysis is accomplished using statistical parameters and probability density functions for each discontinuity parameter. Then, the two requisite conditions, kinematic and kinetic instability for evaluating rock slope stability, are determined and evaluated separately, and subsequently the two probabilities are combined to provide an overall stability measure. Following the probabilistic analysis to account for variation in parameters, results of the probabilistic analyses were compared to those of a deterministic analysis, illustrating deficiencies in the latter procedure. Two geometries for the cut slopes on I-40 were evaluated, the original 75° slope and the 50° slope which has developed over the past 40 years of weathering.     

Engineering properties and slope stability of lower coal measures rocks from monk wood cutting,Unstone-Dronfield by-pass,Derbyshire

This 30 m deep cutting has been the subject of a detailed geotechnical analysis, in view of mass-sliding wedge failures which had occurred in cuttings in similar geological situations in other parts of Britain.The sequence of rocks includes two coal seams, the upper being thin (0.3 m) and the lower thick (2 m), the latter with a recognisable seatearth (underclay). There is a thick sandstone at the top of the succession, with siltstone, mudstone and black mudstone also present.Both field and laboratory testing was carried out. The most probable failure mechanism within the more competent sandstone sequence to the south of the site would probably have been in the form of wedge failures on pre-existing discontinuities within the rock mass. It was necessary to evaluate the shear strength which could be mobilised along these planes and a field rock shear box was used. Drained-soil shear tests were also made on potential failure-surface materials, namely seatearth and clay shear zones. Weathered mudstone samples were tested to provide design parameters for the analysis of rotational slips. Additional laboratory testing carried out comprised bulk density, classification tests, slake durability and point-load indices. X-ray diffraction analyses were made on a range of materials such as seatearth, mudstone, shear zone and sandstone bedding-plane shear surface. This extensive test programme enabled parameters to be accurately determined for use in stability analyses. The latter show the critical effects of water conditions on the factor of safety.The performance of the cut has been monitored since early 1974 and no recordable movement has been noted.     

Charnockite bedrock,Chennai coast,Tamil Nadu: Micromorphology and geochemical signatures in stages of the weathering processes

Occurrences of landslide are most common and critical issue in North-East India. The various types of slope failures have been affected most part of slopes and road section between Malidor to Sonapur area (approx 30 Km) along NH-44 within Jaintia hills district, Meghalaya, India. These slope failures causes considerable loss of life and property along with many inconveniences such as disruption of traffic along highways. The unscientific excavations of rock slopes for road widening or construction purposes may weaken the stability of the slopes. The rocks exposed in the area are highly jointed sandstone and shale of Barail Group of Oligocene age. The Sonapur landslide is most dangerous and destructive rock fall-cum debris flow. The present study includes the kinematic analysis of the slope to assess the potential failure directions as the rocks are highly jointed in some parts of road cut sections. The continuous slope mass rating (CSMR) technique has been applied for slope stability analysis at five vulnerable locations. Kinematic analysis indicates mainly wedge type of failure along with few toppling and planar failures. These failure required immediate treatment to prevent the slide and long term stability of the slope.     

Stability analysis and supporting system design of a high-steep cut soil slope on an ancient landslide during highway construction of Tehran–Chalus

The stability of both natural and cut slopes in mountainous areas is a great challenge to highway constructions and operations. This paper presents a successful case study of stability analyses and protection treatments for high-steep cut soil slopes in an ancient landslide zone which was located at Km12+700 to Km15+000 along the Tehran?CChalus highway. This report has three parts. First, geotechnical investigations of in situ direct shear test, SPT tests and laboratory tests were implemented to get the subsurface profiles and the mechanical properties of the soil mass. Second, finite difference analysis was carried out to evaluate the stability of both the natural and cut slopes. Minimum safety factors and potential failure modes of cut slopes were obtained under both static and dynamic conditions. These results indicated that the ancient landslide could not be reactivated under the present climatic and morphological conditions, but there were some potential shallow failures in some cut soil slopes (failure actually occurred during excavation). Protection treatments and reinforcements were thus necessary. Third, the stability of the cut slopes was re-assessed by simplified Bishop limit equilibrium analysis (using Slide 5.0). Some potential failure zones were designed to be protected by back-anchored concrete retaining wall at the slope toe, rock bolts and frame beams on the slope face and planting grass on the slope face. Numerical analysis indicated that these protection measures could stabilize this remedial slope. These practical experiences may be of benefit for similar highway construction projects.     

Relationship Between Petrographic Characteristics and the Engineering Properties of Jurassic Sandstones, Hamedan, Iran

To study the relationship between engineering properties and petrographic characteristics, 20 rock samples were collected from Jurassic sandstones in the Hamedan region, western Iran. The specimens were tested to determine uniaxial compressive strength, point load strength index, tangent modulus, porosity, and dry and saturated unit weights. Samples were also subjected to petrographic examination, which included the observation of 11 parameters and modal analysis. Based on the results of a statistical analysis, polynomial prediction equations were developed to estimate physical and mechanical properties from petrographic characteristics. The results show that textural characteristics are more important than mineral compositions for predicting engineering characteristics. The packing density, packing proximity and grain shape are the petrographic properties that significantly affect the engineering properties of samples. Multivariate linear regression analysis was performed, employing four steps comprising various combinations of petrographic characteristics for each engineering parameter. The optimal equation, along with the relevant combination of petrographic characteristics for estimating the engineering properties of the rock samples is proposed.     

Evaluation of rock slope stability for Yujian River dam site by kinematic and block theory analyses

Lithological information, rock mass fracture data and discontinuity shear strength obtained through field investigations have been used to conduct kinematic and block theory analyses for the rock slopes that exist in the dam site to evaluate the stability of the slopes. The analyses were performed using mean discontinuity set orientations for each rock mass region under gravitational loading to calculate the maximum safe slope angles (MSSA) for different cut slope directions. Results show that final MSSAs obtained from kinematic analysis are less than or equal to that obtained from block theory analysis. The following conclusions have been made based on the block theory analysis results, which are closer to the reality: (1) The final MSSA range between 30° and 47°, 44° and 70°, 47° and 69° for cut slope dip directions of 20–30°, 105–210°, and 270–355°, respectively; (2) For cut slope dip directions of 20–30°, 200–210° and 275–315°, wide ranges of values have been obtained for the final MSSA reflecting the influence of variability of fracture orientations on MSSA; (3) Apart from the region R-d-1 for slope dip directions in the range 20–30°, rest of the regions at the dam site seem to be stable for slope angles less than 40°. Detailed comparisons are given between the kinematic and block theory analyses covering both the theoretical concepts and application results. Also a brief comparison is included between the laboratory and in situ discontinuity shear strength results.     

琼东南盆地西区梅山组海底扇岩相-地球化学特征及源区意义

南海北部琼东南盆地西区乐东-陵水凹陷梅山组海底扇是当前天然气勘探重点领域,通过研究其岩石类型、轻/重矿物与地球化学特征,判断沉积源区性质,为储层评价及预测提供地质基础.结果表明:岩性以细砂岩为主,发育粉、中-粗砂岩,岩石类型为石英砂岩、岩屑石英砂岩、长石岩屑砂岩,重矿物组合表现为磁铁矿+锆石+电气石+白钛矿;由于发育高铁镁质矿物及粘土矿物,泥岩较砂岩SiO₂含量明显低,Fe₂O₃、MgO、CaO、K₂O含量与稀土总量偏高.说明源区富石英、贫钾长石且含有大量粘土矿物,主要为石英质沉积源区,局部为中性火成岩源区,且经历了低-中等程度的风化作用,是再循环沉积而成.      

冷生风化作用对边坡稳定性影响

The experiment shows that considerable influence on density rock properties are subjected by nival weathering conditions. The main parameter defining the rock suitability for solution various engineering and geological problems is its firmness limit on single axis pressing. The firmness properties of sandstone being in absolutely dry condition for Kabakta suite at the beginning of investigation was 64.7 MPa, for Nerungri suite sandstones it was 48. 7 MPa. The investigations showed how much the nival conditions of cryohypergenesis of rock sandstones in Kabakta and Nerungri suites have destructive influence in comparison with aquale and more over aerale conditions. In the aerale conditions sedimentary rock firmness of Kabakta suite decreased to 23.2 MPa, in aquale conditions to 16.5, and in the nivale conditions to 8.9 MPa. In Nerungri suite sandstones are according to 17.7 MPa, 11.1 MPa, and 6 MPa after 300 freezing and thawing cycles. The common sandstone firmness decrease of Kabakta suite was 25 %,of Nerungri suite it was 23.8%. Marlstone samples after 400 FTC decrease to 62% in the nivale conditions and to 33 % in the aerale conditions. After 3～5 years of exploitation marlstone will destruct due to structural and textural inhomogenesis up to gruss, i.e. it will not meet the requirements of durability.Judging by the results of carried out experiment it should be concluded that by cryogenic weathering the sedimentary rocks (sandstones) and rocks with schistose lithogenic texture (marlstone) are subjected to disintegration. The primary rock samples firmness considerably influences on the disintegration rate.     

Computer simulation-based evaluation of rock fall roll-out distances for catchment ditch design in Ohio,USA

Catchment ditches along highways are designed to contain hazardous rock falls from cut slopes. RocFall, a rock fall simulation software, was used to evaluate the maximum roll-out distances of rock falls in order to determine rock fall catchment ditch dimensions for Ohio's cut slopes. Based on stratigraphy, cut slopes in Ohio were classified into five types. The parameters required for simulation process included friction angle between rock fall and slope face, coefficient of normal and tangential restitution, slope roughness and average weight of rock falls. A total of 400 simulations were performed for various slope heights, slope angles and catchment ditch slopes. The results are useful in designing catchment ditch for Ohio and neighbouring states where the stratigraphy consists of sub-horizontal, inter-layered hard and soft rock units. The widely used guidelines developed by the Oregon Department of Transportation do not work well for Ohio's stratigraphy.     

浸泡-风干循环作用下砂岩动力特性劣化规律研究

在库水的长期浸泡-风干循环作用下,库岸边坡岩体的动力特性变化规律直接影响其长期稳定性能,其中,消落带是库岸边坡稳定的敏感地带。因此,特选取三峡库区库岸边坡消落带典型砂岩为研究对象,设计了考虑水压力反复升降变化和浸泡-风干循环耦合作用的试验方案,对不同浸泡-风干循环作用周期的岩样进行单轴循环加、卸载动力响应试验。研究结果表明：随着浸泡-风干循环作用次数的增加,相同次数加、卸载循环作用时对应岩样的轴向应变、动应力-应变曲线的滞回圈面积逐渐增大,计算得到砂岩的阻尼系数、阻尼比逐渐变大,动弹性模量逐渐减小,说明浸泡-风干循环作用对砂岩动力特性的损伤是一种累积性发展的过程。最后,基于岩样的微观结构变化,对浸泡-风干水岩循环作用下砂岩动力特性劣化机制进行探讨。研究成果对库区大量存在的库岸边坡在考虑地震作用下的长期稳定性评价具有较高的参考价值。     

Rock mass rating and Kinematic analysis for slope stability investigation of Utari dam,Lalitpur district,Uttar Pradesh

Rock mass characterization of Utari dam in Lalitpur district of Uttar Pradesh was done to identify different stability classes of rock mass. For better stability of Utari dam, foundation conditions were carefully studied by detailed field investigations of the site supplemented by laboratory tests. During feasibility and preliminary stages, rock mass characterization of slopes was conducted to identify the vulnerable zones of failure. Rock mass characterization was done by compilation of information obtained from intact rock as well as from rock mass to determine its grade and long term slope stability of the site. On the basis of Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and Geological Strength Index (GSI) slope stability is identified which lies under good quality rock mass. Kinematic analysis was conducted to find out the probability for different types of structurally controlled slope failure. Microscopic analyses were conducted to identify the degree of chemical alteration of feldspar. Clay formation by sericitization along joint planes is harmful for the stability of dam structure. Remedial measures must be taken to reduce the extent of chemical alteration. Granitoids at dam site forms a compact and stable foundation consisting of four sets of joints in which two sets were prominent which are dipping on the upstream side of the dam which reveals good condition on the dam site as leakage from reservoir will be minimum and least up-thrust on the dam structure.     

川东北元坝地区须家河组储层特征与超致密成因探讨

元坝地区须家河组砂岩的致密化程度极高,以超低孔、超低渗储层为主,属于超致密砂岩。本文基于铸体薄片、阴极发光、扫描电镜和物性等资料,在对砂岩的岩石组分、孔隙类型及物性特征分析的基础上,通过与国内外典型致密砂岩对比,揭示研究区砂岩较其他砂岩致密化程度高的原因,分析超致密砂岩的勘探潜能。结果表明,研究区砂岩具有较高的塑性岩屑、碳酸盐岩岩屑和黏土杂基含量;填隙物以黏土杂基和钙质胶结物为主,较强的硅质胶结作用仅发育于石英砂岩中。孔隙多为黏土杂基晶间微孔,喉道呈窄缝状或不发育,孔喉分选差,偏细歪度。砂岩致密化程度高主要有两方面的原因:一是原始组构差,成分成熟度低,含有较高的塑性岩屑、碳酸盐岩岩屑和黏土杂基含量,导致砂岩在早成岩阶段既已经历了很强的压实作用和钙质胶结作用,致密化时间早,溶蚀作用不发育;二是成岩演化阶段高,砂岩经历了中成岩阶段的压溶及进一步的钙质/硅质胶结,使得砂岩超致密化。与国内外典型致密砂岩气藏对比表明,超致密砂岩有效孔隙少,对天然气的富集能力有限。元坝地区须家河组只有孔隙度近于8%(如长石岩屑砂岩)的砂岩才可成为有利的致密气储层。