青海纳日贡玛斑岩钼(铜)矿床:蚀变

通过对纳日贡玛斑岩钼（铜）矿床的蚀变类型的详细研究,识别了矿床蚀变的3种主要类型：钾硅酸盐化、青磐岩化和长石分解蚀变.前二者为矿区早期形成的蚀变,长石分解蚀变形成于晚期.钾硅酸盐化蚀变主要以黑云母化、钾长石化为特征,青磐岩化以脉状绿泥石、绿帘石、方解石等蚀变矿物的发育为基本特征,长石分解蚀变则发育绢云母、高岭土、方解石、硬石膏等矿物.研究认为矿化与石英-辉钼矿±硬石膏±黄铜矿±黄铁矿脉、辉钼矿±黄铁矿±黄铜矿脉有较为密切的联系.     

准噶尔北部希勒库都克斑岩钼铜矿床地质与成矿流体

希勒库都克斑岩铜钼矿床铜钼矿化与安山玢岩脉、英安玢岩脉有关,蚀变有钾长石化、绢云母化、绿帘石化等,向外发育绿泥石化、深部发育夕卡岩型蚀变。浅部以钼矿化为主,向深部铜钼矿化并存。与典型的斑岩型矿床相比,其石英中流体包裹体少而小,气体包裹体少,含CO₂包裹体及含子矿物包裹体发育,子矿物以NaCl为主,基本不出现KCl子矿物。钼富集处出现了富CO₂流体的沸腾,铜富集处出现了成群分布的含大子矿物包裹体,沸腾消失。钼的成矿主要与富CO₂成矿流体沸腾及斑岩型蚀变和夕卡岩蚀变有关,钼主要源于地壳,成矿温度为280~530℃,集中在300~400℃左右。铜主要与直接从深源基性岩浆出溶的高盐度流体及夕卡岩型蚀变有关,铜主要源于上地幔,主要成矿温度低于350℃。晚期流体的成矿温度为180~300℃左右。希勒库都克矿床成矿流体特征反映了壳源与幔源流体混合、岩浆热液与天水混合的特征。     

大兴安岭岔路口矿区中生代多期岩浆活动与钼成矿作用

岔路口矿床是迄今为止在中国东北地区找到的最大规模钼多金属矿床,钼、铅-锌和银的储量分别为124万t、26万t和2773 t。考虑到大规模地质勘查工作仍在进行中,金属储量的增加只是个时间问题。钼多金属矿化大都在中—晚侏罗世和早白垩世酸性火山岩和隐爆角砾岩以及燕山期石英斑岩(花岗斑岩)内呈浸染状、细脉状和网脉状产出,并且构成似层状、囊状和"倒扣钟"状矿体。钼多金属矿石主要由辉钼矿、黄铁矿、磁铁矿、方铅矿、闪锌矿、石英、钾长石、萤石和绢云母所组成,其中8件辉钼矿样品的Re-Os同位素等时线年龄为(146.9±0.8)Ma。初步研究结果表明,岔路口矿床无论在产出环境和地质特征方面,还是在矿物种类和元素组合上均可与美国克莱梅克斯钼矿床相对比,属高氟含量斑岩型钼矿床。古大陆内部伸展构造环境中生代多期中酸性岩浆活动为矿床的形成提供了动力、热力和物质来源,隐爆角砾岩带为成矿流体运移和成矿物质堆积提供了空间条件。     

滇西宝兴厂斑岩铜钼金矿床成矿流体特征

宝兴厂斑岩铜钼金矿床是三江成矿带上与富碱斑岩有关的典型斑岩型矿床,产出于金沙江-哀牢山深大断裂带中部东侧。宝兴厂矿床铜、钼、金、铁等各类型矿化皆有发育,具有复杂的岩浆活动及热液演化。矿区岩浆岩主要为喜马拉雅期富碱复式岩体,包括正长斑岩、石英二长斑岩、花岗斑岩和斑状花岗岩等,具有多期次侵入特征。铜钼矿体主要分布于花岗斑岩和斑状花岗岩内部,铁金矿体主要分布于岩体内外接触带上,矿体呈脉状、透镜状或似层状。热液蚀变由内向外分带显著,依次为钾硅酸盐化(黑云母化)、绢云母化、青磐岩化(绿泥石-绿帘石化),局部黏土化。本文通过系统的野外观测、详细的岩芯编录以及全面的岩相学观察,依据矿物共生组合、矿化热液脉体穿切关系及蚀变特征,将宝兴厂矿床内主要矿化脉体分为3类:A脉、B脉及D脉。通过对3类脉体内石英中流体包裹体的显微测温工作和成矿流体物理化学条件计算,剖析了成矿流体演化特征,探讨了成矿作用过程与成因机理。A脉与钾长石化和黑云母化蚀变关系密切,多为不规则脉状,宽约1~5mm,矿物组合一般为石英±钾长石±黑云母±少量黄铜矿±少量黄铁矿。石英多呈他形细粒,少量黄铁矿、黄铜矿沿石英颗粒边界呈浸染状产出。脉体中常含有黑云母、钾长石,两侧常见钾长石蚀变晕。A脉中一般没有矿化。B脉宽约15~30mm,矿物组合一般为:石英±辉钼矿±黄铜矿±黄铁矿。靠近脉壁的石英多为他形细粒,向中心转变为长柱状垂直于脉壁对称生长。硫化物呈线状分布于脉体的中心或边缘。B脉一般没有蚀变,偶见少量的绿帘石化-绿泥石化。D脉与绿泥石化-绢云母化关系密切,脉体规则连续,脉体宽度变化范围大,为1~30mm。矿物组合一般为石英±绿泥石±黄铁矿±少量黄铜矿。石英数量较少,多呈半自形-他形粗粒,相对于B脉黄铁矿含量明显增多,黄铜矿含量减少,呈浸染状分布,脉体中钾长石、黑云母常蚀变为绢云母和绿泥石,脉体两侧常具有绿泥石-绢云母蚀变晕。A脉形成于成矿早阶段斑岩尚未固结时,其流体包裹体以含子晶(NaCl子晶为主)多相包裹体和富气相包裹体组合为特点,均一温度为364~550℃,盐度分别集中在45.64%~52.89%NaCleqv(含子晶多相包裹体)和3.3%~16.34%NaCleqv(气液两相包裹体)两个区间内,该阶段流体显示出沸腾、不混溶及发生相分离特征。根据A脉中5个含石盐子晶的包裹体压力估算图,得出宝兴厂矿床A脉中LVH相包裹体被捕获时的最低压力为50~145MPa,按地压梯度27MPa/km换算,A脉形成的深度最少1.8~5.4km。B脉形成于成矿主阶段,石英中发育含子晶多相包裹体(NaCl子晶)和富气相包裹体,均一温度为210~410℃,盐度集中在34.24%~52.04%NaCleqv和5.23%~13.99%NaCleqv两个区间内,该阶段成矿流体发生减压沸腾作用,使得Cu、Mo、Au大量沉淀,根据NaCl-H2O体系P-T相图压力估算,B脉的形成压力大约为15~48MPa,形成深度为0.56~1.78km。D脉形成于成矿晚阶段,石英以发育大量富液相包裹体为特征,均一温度为223~303℃,盐度集中在3.53%~11.71%NaCleqv范围内,该阶段成矿流体以中-低温、低盐度的岩浆热液与大气降水的混合流体为主,流体压力也降低到15MPa,形成深度不超过0.56km。宝兴厂矿床热液流体演化总体趋势为:由早阶段的高温、中-高盐度的岩浆热液向成矿晚阶段中-低温、低盐度的岩浆热液+大气降水混合流体转变。     

新疆东天山卡拉塔格红海VMS铜锌矿床蚀变与矿化时空分布特征

红海VMS铜锌矿床位于新疆东天山大南湖-头苏泉岛弧带的卡拉塔格地区,矿床上部发育似层状块状硫化物矿体,下部为不整合的脉状-网脉状矿体,块状矿体上盘火山岩盖层中也发育少量铜矿化。本文在前人工作基础上,根据矿物交代次序、脉体穿插关系和矿物共生组合类型,精细划分了矿床的蚀变分带和成矿期次。矿床(含盖层)从浅到深依次发育绿泥石-钠长石-绢云母-碳酸盐化、绿帘石-绿泥石-钠长石-绢云母-碳酸盐化、石英-绢云母-黄铁矿化、块状硫化物矿体、绿泥石-黄铁矿±绢云母化和绿泥石-石英-绢云母化。红海矿床成矿过程可分为VMS成矿期、后期热液叠加期和表生期,其中VMS成矿期可细分为黄铁矿阶段、黄铜矿-闪锌矿阶段和重晶石阶段,后期热液叠加期可细分为钠长石化阶段、绿泥石-绿帘石阶段和石英-碳酸盐阶段。主矿化期及蚀变特征与典型VMS矿床类似,但同时还表现出许多海底交代作用的特征。后期热液在矿体上盘火山岩中所产生的绿帘石化、绿泥石化和绿帘石-石英-黄铜矿-斑铜矿脉、石英-碳酸盐脉等蚀变和矿化,与斑岩矿化系统的青磐岩化类似,表明红海矿床后期可能受到斑岩系统的叠加,矿区具有斑岩铜矿床的找矿潜力。     

内蒙古边家大院铅锌银矿地质特征和控矿因素

边家大院矿床成因类型根据目前勘查成果认为是与浅成-超浅成侵入岩(脉)有关的热液型脉状铅锌银矿床,主要矿化产于砂板岩、闪长岩中。平面上成矿元素具有明显的分带性,自西向东有斑岩型锡(钼、铜)矿化→隐爆角砾岩型锌(铅、银)矿化→脉状充填型银(铅、锌)矿化;本文根据矿床地质特征分析,对控矿因素进行了总结,认为隐伏的石英斑岩脉(体)是本矿床成矿热源中心,也是成矿流体的主要来源;脉状铅锌银矿体受低次序密集裂隙(断裂)带的控制,并与岩脉、岩脉群密切相关,以脉状充填形式产于其中。     

滇西北中甸地区铜厂沟斑岩钼铜矿床热液蚀变分带、脉体系统及找矿标志

铜厂沟斑岩型钼铜矿床位于云南中甸地区斑岩成矿带的南端,形成于燕山晚期陆-陆碰撞至造山后伸展构造的转换阶段。文章通过对铜厂沟钼铜矿床蚀变分带特征和脉体穿切关系的详细研究,系统厘定了矿床蚀变类型及空间分布规律,查明了蚀变和脉体系统与矿化的关系。根据矿物组合、蚀变类型等因素,将分为A脉、B脉和D脉3大类,共16种不同的脉体类型。其中,A脉和B脉与成矿关系密切,对钼铜资源量贡献最大。早期的A脉,主要以钾长石化为主,矿化较弱;晚期形成的A脉多发育有黑云母化且与钾长石化蚀变叠加,矿化增强,以石英+黄铁矿+辉钼矿+黄铜矿±钾长石脉为主;B脉主要贡献于辉钼矿矿体的形成,是区内矿化的主要表现形式,且叠加于钾硅酸盐化,形成于钾硅酸盐化向石英-绢云母化的转变阶段;D脉中铜钼矿化明显减弱,属于矿化体外围的脉体,对矿体影响较小。因此,铜厂沟钼铜矿床蚀变分带规律在空间上表现为钾硅酸盐化（石英-钾长石-黑云母化）发育于斑岩体核部,向外依次是石英-绢云母化（石英-绢云母±黄铁矿化）,和青磐岩化（绿泥石-绿帘石-碳酸盐岩化）,对应的矿化组合分别为辉钼矿-白钨矿-黄铁矿、辉钼矿-黄铜矿-黄铁矿±白钨矿,以及外带的黄铜矿-黄铁矿-辉钼矿,显示出成矿元素由高温向低温变化的规律。铜厂沟斑岩型钼铜矿床的形成与区内燕山晚期伸展作用相伴的大规模构造-岩浆事件相关,源自深部的含矿热液在花岗质斑岩体内形成了脉状、网脉状的辉钼矿化,同时沿断裂带运移并扩散,于碳酸盐岩的接触带部位形成了矽卡岩型的铜钼矿化。因此,有利的构造环境、强烈的蚀变作用、多样的脉体类型导致铜厂沟大型斑岩型钼铜矿床最终形成。     

香格里拉卓玛铜铅锌多金属矿特征与资源潜力

大脉状产出的卓玛铜铅锌矿,成矿母岩为印支期侵位于图姆沟组的石英闪长玢岩、石英二长斑岩构成的复式岩体。岩体由中心向外,具环状面型的"斑岩型"蚀变特征,矿化与硅化—绢云母化蚀变有关。由中心到外围,由深到浅,形成深部斑岩钼(铜)矿→中部矽卡岩铜矿→外围脉状铜铅锌矿的成矿系列特征,目前发现的矿体仅是斑岩型矿床分带中上部的大脉型矿体部分,深部具有寻找斑岩-矽卡岩型铜(钼)矿体潜力。     

大兴安岭北东段森林覆盖区岔路口巨型斑岩钼多金属矿床的发现过程及意义

岔路口巨型斑岩钼矿的发现是近年来大兴安岭北段森林覆盖区找矿的重大突破,其规模居中国北方钼矿之首。矿床位于伊勒呼里山南1 029高地火山机构旁侧,成矿与晚侏罗世—早白垩世以超浅成相侵入的石英斑岩、花岗斑岩及其相伴产生的隐爆作用有密切时空关系。矿体产于火山沉积岩和成矿斑岩体中,钼矿化以呈网脉状和细脉的裂隙充填形式为主,少量为大脉状和细脉浸染状;钼矿体呈隐伏穹隆状,延深巨大。热液蚀变发育、分带性明显,以硅化强烈、萤石化广泛为显著特征。矿区剥蚀程度甚低,地表大范围表现为泥化带,仅中心地带发育有弱石英绢云母化和低品位钼矿化;向深部蚀变矿化逐渐增强,矿化延深达千米。钼矿体上部共伴生有脉状铅锌银矿化。成矿同期火山岩碱质含量高,该矿床为碰撞拼接后陆内伸展构造环境中岩浆活动产物,成矿岩浆-热液体系具高氟富硫高氧化的特征,与美国的Climax钼矿较为相似。该矿床的发现和探明,为研究斑岩-脉状钼锌银成矿体系提供了范例,对区域构造-岩浆过程研究与区域找矿勘查均具有重要意义。     

大别山地区沙坪沟斑岩型钼矿床蚀变及矿化特征研究

沙坪沟钼矿床是大别山地区新近发现的、世界第二大的斑岩型钼矿床。本文在前期以及前人的工作基础上,通过详细的野外地质观察和系统的岩相学、矿相学以及探针测试分析工作,详细研究了沙坪沟钼矿床的蚀变与矿化特征。结果表明,沙坪沟钼矿床的围岩蚀变类型主要有钾硅酸盐化、青磐岩化和绢英岩化,绢英岩化又可细分为以石英为主和以绢云母为主。矿床中产出16种脉体类型,根据矿床的脉体类型划分了4个成矿阶段:(1)石英-钾长石阶段;(2)石英-硫化物阶段;(3)石英-绢云母阶段;(4)石英-萤石-石膏阶段。蚀变及矿化特征显示,沙坪沟钼矿床的钼矿化开始于石英-钾长石阶段晚期,结束于石英-绢云母阶段早期,石英-硫化物阶段是辉钼矿主要的形成阶段。沙坪沟钼矿床经历了多期次脉动式成矿流体的蚀变与矿化过程,在不同蚀变-矿化阶段中,成矿流体的物化条件和组分的变化是控制各阶段蚀变类型和脉体中矿物组合的主要因素。产于以伸展为主的板内环境的沙坪沟钼矿床与其他构造环境下的斑岩钼矿床在与成矿关系密切的岩石、蚀变分带等方面相似,但由于围岩性质的差异,矿体赋存位置及产状不同;而在矿物种类、矿化产出位置及产状、与矿化关系最为紧密的蚀变类型等方面存在差异。斑岩型钼矿床的构造背景可能控制了其岩浆的形成、演化以及含矿性,而岩浆岩最终定位的深度、围岩等条件也是控制蚀变和矿化特征的重要因素。     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Pools,riffles, and channelization

The addition of regularly spaced deeps (pools) and shallows (riffles) that provide a variety of flow conditions, areal sorting of stream-bed material, cover for wildlife, and a positive aesthetic experience, may be desirable in many channel projects. Such designs will reduce adverse environmental impacts of stream channel modifications. Analysis of variance for pool-to-pool spacing data suggests that there is no significant difference with respect to channel width between pools that form in natural streams and those in streams affected by a variety of human uses. Short of channelization, which changes the channel width, pools and riffles, within limits, are not particularly sensitive to environmental stress. Experiments in Gum Branch near Charlotte, North Carolina, support the hypothesis that channel form and process evolve in harmony and that manipulation of cross-channel morphology can influence the development of desired channel processes. Planned manipulation of its channel form induced Gum Branch to develop as desired. Morphologic stability consisting of incipient point bars, pools, and riffles was maintained over a period of high magnitude flood events, only to be degraded later by a wave of sediment derived from upstream construction and stream-bank failures. Thus, environmentally desirable channel morphology in urban streams cannot remain stable if changes in the sediment load or storm-water runoff exceed the limits of the stream's ability to make internal adjustments while maintaining morphologic stability.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians