断裂熔融作用中单质铁的形成及其指示的孕震环境

目前缺乏来自于地震断裂带的假玄武玻璃的原始特征研究,制约着我们对地震孕震环境和地震发生机制的认识。本文以龙门山断裂带汶川科钻2号钻孔岩心的碎裂岩及花岗闪长岩为研究对象,通过氩气环境下的高温加热实验(最高温度达1750℃)、显微结构观察、地球化学分析和岩石磁学测试,探讨断裂熔融作用中单质铁的形成及其指示意义。花岗闪长岩和碎裂岩在1100℃时发生部分熔融作用,形成了非晶质和微晶;在≥1300℃时形成了大量单质铁组成的微球粒,可能是含铁矿物发生了以碳物质为还原剂的高温还原反应。高温实验后样品的磁化率值高于碎裂岩的磁化率值,新生成的磁铁矿是≤1100℃的样品高磁化率值的主要原因;熔融作用中形成的单质铁和少量的磁铁矿是≥1300℃样品高磁化率值的重要原因。结合前人对于快速摩擦实验熔体、地幔物质及陨石的研究,我们认为粘土矿物、硅酸盐矿物含量较多的断层泥在同震滑移中因热增压机制很难形成单质铁;而花岗岩、安山岩、辉长岩、闪长岩等岩浆岩和糜棱岩在流体作用弱和硫化物含量低的环境中易在大地震中形成单质铁。龙门山断裂带的假玄武玻璃的熔融温度≥1300℃,硫元素含量较低并发现有过剩铁元素。因此,表明龙门山断裂带的假玄武玻璃中可能形成了单质铁,其和磁铁矿是假玄武玻璃高磁化率值异常的重要原因,并指示了深部流体作用弱、硫化物含量低、还原性的孕震环境。     

龙门山汶川-茂县断裂带的岩石磁学特征及其地震作用的指示意义

汶川-茂县断裂带是龙门山后山断裂，是松潘-甘孜褶皱带与龙门山断裂带之间的边界断层，然而，在2008年M_W 7.9级汶川大地震中并没有发生破裂。同时，汶川-茂县断裂带在汶川地震之前是否发生过历史大地震仍缺少确切的证据。这不仅制约着汶川地震发生机制的认识，而且还影响对龙门山形成演化过程的理解。因此，确定汶川-茂县断裂带的断裂作用环境对于认识龙门山断裂带的地震发生机制至关重要。断裂岩的岩石磁学可以有效地揭示断裂带的物理和化学环境。本文以汶川-茂县断裂带北部地表露头的断裂岩为研究对象，通过岩石磁学研究，并结合显微结构观察和地球化学分析，探讨汶川-茂县断裂带的断裂作用环境。断层泥和断层角砾岩最大磁化率值分别约为围岩的30倍和15倍，具有高磁化率值特征。断层泥的主要载磁矿物为磁铁矿、磁黄铁矿、针铁矿；断层角砾岩的主要载磁矿物为磁黄铁矿、针铁矿。断层泥的高磁化率值异常的主要原因是围岩中的含铁矿物在地震摩擦热和流体作用下新生成磁铁矿和磁黄铁矿。断层角砾岩的高磁化率值异常是围岩在含有大量硫元素的低温热液流体作用下生成了磁黄铁矿。大量针铁矿指示了震后期还原性的低温热液流体作用。断裂岩...     

汶川地震断裂带多次地震活动新证据

虹口乡八角庙出露完整的映秀—北川断裂带剖面断层岩,高分辨率磁化率测试揭示出多个具有高磁化率特征的断层岩带。系统的岩石磁学分析证明一层褐色断层岩相对围岩具有最大的磁化率值,存在新生成的磁铁矿和拥有相似的天然剩磁(NRM)和非磁滞剩磁(ARM)强度衰减过程。高磁化率特征是含铁顺磁性矿物受到断层滑移过程产生摩擦生热作用生成磁铁矿所致。同时断层岩还获得了热剩磁,记录了地震活动磁学信息。结合汶川地震科学钻探项目1号孔(WFSD-1)磁化率和岩石磁学研究结果,说明映秀—北川断裂带包含多层具有高磁化率特征的断层岩,暗示了多次强震的发生。具有高磁化率特征的断层岩可以作为判定地震活动的标志之一。     

汶川地震假玄武玻璃的特征、成因及其构造意义

富流体的断层泥是浅部地震断层带中的特征岩石。一般认为，地震过程中摩擦热会导致粒间孔隙流体热膨胀增压，形成同震断层弱化(热增压机制),从而抑制摩擦熔融的发生。然而我们研究发现，在2008年汶川大地震(M_W 7.9)中断层浅部发生了摩擦熔融。汶川地震发生一年后，我们在汶川地震断裂带科学钻探项目一号钻孔(WFSD-1)732.6m深处的断层泥中发现了厚度约2mm的假玄武玻璃(凝固的摩擦熔融物)。该假玄武玻璃形成的位置极浅，且产生于非固结的、富流体的断层泥中。从岩心来看，断层面可见镜面构造和同震擦痕。微构造分析显示，该假玄武玻璃主要由石英碎屑和由长石与黏土矿物熔融的非晶质基质组成，基质中发育众多不规则的微裂隙，并可见流动构造。化学成分分析显示，其基质富Ba且被重晶石(BaSO₄)小细脉切割，为同震及震后流体存在的证据。由于假玄武玻璃在流体存在的条件下会快速蚀变，且龙门山地区大地震复发周期为3000～6000年，因而这些完全未被蚀变的新鲜假玄武玻璃可能是最近一次大地震，即2008年汶川大地震的产物。针对钻孔中断层泥进行的高速摩擦试验，证实了在钻孔732...     

龙门山逆冲带假玄武玻璃在其形成及后期抬升过程中的化学变化

假玄武玻璃作为地震断层摩擦熔融的产物记录了断层带内地震破裂的相关信息,是认识断层带形成过程及其活动历史的重要物质组成。钻探获取的地下深部的断层岩样品,免受地表物理化学风化,相对较为新鲜,能够提供更接近其形成时的相关信息。本文以龙门山映秀—北川断裂带南段彭灌杂岩中发育多期假玄武玻璃为研究对象,应用扫描电镜、微区X射线荧光光谱(μXRF)岩心扫描仪以及布鲁克M4 TORNADO高性能微区X射线荧光光谱仪等仪器对虹口八角庙地表和汶川地震断裂带科学钻探(WFSD)岩心中发育的假玄武玻璃的化学组成进行对比研究。显微结构特征表明这些假玄武玻璃为地震断层快速滑动摩擦熔融的产物。化学元素对比分析结果显示,熔融物形成于高温还原环境下,其化学性质以高Fe、Ti、K值,低Si值为特征,并具高磁化率值的物理性质。地表假玄武玻璃经受表生流体作用,化学性质发生明显变化,以低K、Ti值和出现含Ca元素的新生矿物为特征。同时岩心中来自较深断层带的多期假玄武玻璃的成分差异也表明,大气水和地表水已沿断层带侵入到了585m以下或更深部位。因此在应用假玄武玻璃对地震断层瞬时滑动环境进行判断时需谨慎,应考虑其后期化学成分变化等造成的各种影响。     

地表探槽断裂岩岩石磁学揭示汶川地震断裂带不同滑移机制

岩石磁学能揭示岩石的磁性矿物组合,通过断裂岩不同的磁性矿物组合可揭示地震过程中磁性矿物变化、地震摩擦温度及地震滑移机制等基础地震地质问题。2008年Mw 7.9级汶川地震使两条断裂带同时发生地表破裂,包括映秀-北川和灌县-安县断裂地表破裂带,破裂带上地震断裂岩为岩石磁学提供了大量的研究对象。本研究主要以汶川地震地表破裂带上两个探槽内断裂岩为对象,包括映秀-北川地表破裂带上的八角庙探槽和灌县-安县地表破裂带上的九龙探槽,结合目前已发表的地表及WFSD-1孔的研究成果,从岩石磁学角度探讨汶川地震断裂带经历的地震滑移机制:1综合映秀-北川地震断裂带上八角庙探槽和其它位置的断裂岩岩石磁学研究,结果显示该地震断裂带附近断层泥的高磁化率源于新生的亚铁磁性矿物,如磁铁矿和磁赤铁矿等,故映秀-北川地震断裂曾经历高温快速热增压地震滑移机制;2灌县-安县地震断裂带上九龙探槽内断层泥略低的平均磁化率源于其铁的硫化物含量比断层角砾及侏罗纪砂岩多,铁的硫化物可能源于地震过程或断裂岩抬升到地表后的地表作用,如果断层泥中铁的硫化物多含量源于地震过程,则灌县-安县地震断裂带曾经历低温慢速机械润滑地震滑移机制;3两条断裂经历的不同地震滑移机制可能受控于断裂深部结构,如断层产状,映秀-北川地震断裂带的陡倾角易产生高温快速地震滑移,而灌县-安县地震断裂带的缓倾角更易产生低温慢速地震滑移。     

断层带中假玄武玻璃成因机制及非稳态流变意义

假玄武玻璃呈玻璃质或隐晶质特性,常常与断层带相伴出现,其形成能有效地降低断层摩擦强度,被认为是古地震快速滑动的化石纪录。因此,对假玄武玻璃的研究对深入了解深部就位的断层变形和地震成因机制等具有重要意义。尽管国内外学者对假玄武玻璃开展了长期的研究,也积累了丰富的资料,然而,由于天然假玄武玻璃非常少见或零星地被报道,再加上其形成环境和过程的复杂性,对假玄武玻璃的构造特征、形成环境和成因机制仍然存在诸多争议及亟待解决的关键科学问题。研究表明,假玄武玻璃可以发育在大陆岩石圈不同深度范围内,即中下地壳乃至上地幔以糜棱岩为主的韧性变形领域（>60 km）,或中上地壳层次以碎裂岩为主的脆性变形域（<12 km）。越来越多证据也显示出在断层带的脆—韧性转换域中形成的假玄武玻璃跟浅源地震活动直接关联,也意味着中上地壳脆性变形和中下地壳塑性变形之间存在着更为复杂的耦合关联,同时对不同深部岩石强度和力学行为提出了挑战。对假玄武玻璃形成机制存在由断层面上的摩擦热导致的摩擦熔融体或仅仅是断层面岩石超碎裂粉碎作用认识的争议。而有研究认为干的环境有利于假玄武玻璃形成,因为流体的存在会降低断层面的有效正应力,不利于热量的积累以及摩擦熔融的进行;然而,另外一种观点认为流体的存在可以降低矿物熔融温度有利于断层摩擦熔融及形成假玄武玻璃。本文从假玄武玻璃的形成机制、形成深度、流体影响、形成后对断层强度的影响、以及保存与破坏机制几方面进行了最新总结,并对假玄武玻璃中非晶态物质的成因、脆—韧性转换带之下岩石的变形机制以及对陆壳强度的影响和非稳态流变意义进行探讨。     

断层带中假玄武玻璃成因机制及非稳态流变意义

假玄武玻璃呈玻璃质或隐晶质特性,常常与断层带相伴出现,其形成能有效地降低断层摩擦强度,被认为是古地震快速滑动的化石纪录。因此,对假玄武玻璃的研究对深入了解深部就位的断层变形和地震成因机制等具有重要意义。尽管国内外学者对假玄武玻璃开展了长期的研究,也积累了丰富的资料,然而,由于天然假玄武玻璃非常少见或零星地被报道,再加上其形成环境和过程的复杂性,对假玄武玻璃的构造特征、形成环境和成因机制仍然存在诸多争议及亟待解决的关键科学问题。研究表明,假玄武玻璃可以发育在大陆岩石圈不同深度范围内,即中下地壳乃至上地幔以糜棱岩为主的韧性变形领域（>60 km）,或中上地壳层次以碎裂岩为主的脆性变形域（<12 km）。越来越多证据也显示出在断层带的脆—韧性转换域中形成的假玄武玻璃跟浅源地震活动直接关联,也意味着中上地壳脆性变形和中下地壳塑性变形之间存在着更为复杂的耦合关联,同时对不同深部岩石强度和力学行为提出了挑战。对假玄武玻璃形成机制存在由断层面上的摩擦热导致的摩擦熔融体或仅仅是断层面岩石超碎裂粉碎作用认识的争议。而有研究认为干的环境有利于假玄武玻璃形成,因为流体的存在会降低断层面的有效正应力,不利于热量的积累以及摩擦熔融的进行;然而,另外一种观点认为流体的存在可以降低矿物熔融温度有利于断层摩擦熔融及形成假玄武玻璃。本文从假玄武玻璃的形成机制、形成深度、流体影响、形成后对断层强度的影响、以及保存与破坏机制几方面进行了最新总结,并对假玄武玻璃中非晶态物质的成因、脆—韧性转换带之下岩石的变形机制以及对陆壳强度的影响和非稳态流变意义进行探讨。     

西藏羌塘裂谷带假玄武玻璃的发现及其岩石学特征与构造意义

假玄武玻璃是地震过程中断层滑动产生摩擦熔融并快速冷却的产物，被誉为"地震化石"，记录了断层带内地震发生时的物理-化学过程的相关信息，是认识断裂活动历史的重要物质组成。本文以青藏高原腹地羌塘地块SN向正断层——东依布茶卡断层中的假玄武玻璃和碎裂岩等为研究对象，借助偏光显微镜、扫描电镜、粉末X射线衍射分析、原位XRF分析等多种方法对其进行了详细的结构、构造、矿物成分及化学元素分布的分析。野外调查表明该断裂带中假玄武玻璃呈深灰-褐色，与超碎裂岩和碎裂岩相伴生，以断层脉、注入脉和网状脉的形式产出，厚度由几毫米至一厘米不等。显微结构观察显示，假玄武玻璃中残留有摩擦熔融形成的特征构造，如石英的港湾状熔蚀边、蜂窝状气孔构造以及局部发育的长柱状微晶、束状微晶集合体等，指示其为断层滑动摩擦熔融的产物。此外可见假玄武玻璃作为碎屑出现在碎裂岩和角砾岩中，且后期的碎裂岩中包含早期形成的碎裂岩的角砾等，这些特征表明在该断裂带内大地震事件多次重复发生。以该地区正断层初始活动时限13.5Ma、碎裂岩和假玄武玻璃形成深度为10km以下计算，这些断裂岩石从地下深部折返的速率至少为~0.74mm/yr。目前国际上鲜有报导正断层形成的假玄武玻璃，这是我们首次在羌塘地块SN向裂谷正断层中发现熔融成因的假玄武玻璃，对认识区域地震活动及断裂带演化过程具有重要意义。     

活动断裂带岩石的变形机制和摩擦性质—以圣·安德列斯断层为例

岩石的变形机制和力学性质对认识活动断裂带的孕震机制和发震过程都具有重要意义。圣·安德列斯（San Andreas）转换断层是太平洋板块与北美板块的构造边界,也是重要的地震活动带,总结了美国南加州地震中心对圣·安德列斯断层钻孔断层岩的研究进展。对断层泥的高速摩擦实验发现：动力弱化现象只在高速滑移时才发生,伴随着摩擦生热,岩石的摩擦系数显著降低。断层泥中富镁黏土矿物的富集可以显著降低断层的摩擦系数,促进蠕滑,黏土矿物的不均一分布可导致断裂带变形行为和地震分布的突变。与断层泥和碎裂岩不同,粉碎岩形成于快速传播地震的断裂端部,具高孔隙率和高渗透率,流体活动性强。此外,断层岩的有机质成熟度可用来追溯古地震造成的热异常。在川滇中国地震科学实验场开展科学钻探项目,研究断层岩样品的显微结构、物理性质和变形历史,以期为理解大陆汇聚与转换挤压过程中复杂的地震活动提供重要信息。     

汶川地震断裂带结构特征与龙门山隆升的关系

2008年汶川地震(MW7.9)发生在青藏高原东缘龙门山断裂带上,并沿映秀-北川断裂和灌县-安县断裂分别产生约270km和80km的不同性质的地表破裂带。断裂岩是断裂活动的产物,是断裂带的物质组成,其结构特征记录了断裂活动演化的历史。本文以汶川地震发震断裂映秀-北川断裂带中虹口八角庙地区地表露头和汶川地震科学钻探一号孔(WFSD-1)岩心为主要研究对象,通过详细的野外调研、显微结构及XRD分析等,识别出映秀-北川断裂带由五个次级单元组成,分别为:碎裂岩带、黑色断层泥和角砾岩带、灰色断层角砾岩带、深灰色断层角砾岩带以及断层泥和角砾岩带。断裂岩组合显示映秀-北川断裂带具有多核断裂结构特征。映秀-北川断裂带在地表出露的宽度约为240m,岩心中厚度约为105m,碎裂岩、断层角砾岩、断层泥在地表及岩心中均发育,而假玄武玻璃仅在地表碎裂岩部分出现。汶川地震主滑移带斜切了映秀-北川断裂带,不完全沿袭古地震滑移带,暗示汶川地震断裂带与映秀-北川断裂带可能不是同一个断裂体系。通过断裂岩的研究确定了映秀-北川断裂带存在着摩擦熔融、热增压、动态润滑和机械润滑等多种断裂滑移机制。低温热年代学的研究推断映秀-北川断裂带的形成时代为15～10Ma,自形成以来,映秀-北川断裂带的长期活动控制着龙门山的快速隆升。断裂带五个不同断裂岩组合的内部结构带,可能与龙门山不同的隆升速率期有着一定的联系。     

Characterization of slip zone associated with the 1999 Taiwan Chi-Chi earthquake: X-ray CT image analyses and microstructural observations of the Taiwan Chelungpu fault

To characterize the fault-related rocks within the Chelungpu fault, we performed X-ray computed tomography (CT) image analyses and microstructural observations of Hole B core samples from the Taiwan Chelungpu-fault Drilling Project. We identified the slip zone associated with the 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake, within the black gouge zone in the shallowest major fault zone, by comparison with previous reports. The slip zone was characterized by low CT number, cataclastic (or ultracataclastic) texture, and high possibility to have experienced a mechanically fluidized state. Taking these characteristics and previous reports of frictional heating in the slip zone into consideration, we suggested that thermal pressurization was the most likely dynamic weakening mechanism during the earthquake.     

Rock Magnetism Study on Loess-Paleosol Sequence at Huixinggou Section of Sanmenxia Basin

Rock magnetism is the foundation of paleomagnetism and environmental magnetism study, and is effective in identifying the components, grain size and content of magnetic minerals in rocks and sediments. A systematic rock magnetism investigation has been conducted on the Huixinggou loess-paleosol sequence at Shuigou-Huixinggou Paleolithic site of Sanmenxia Basin in the southeastern Loess Plateau. Results show that the magnetic assemblage of the section is dominated by magnetite and maghemite, as well as hematite, exhibiting the average grain size of magnetic minerals is attributed to Pseudo-Single Domain (PSD). The variation curves of magnetic parameters are consistent and well comparable to marine oxygen isotope curves, with low values corresponding to the loess deposition during glacial periods, and high values corresponding to the paleosol development during interglacial periods, jointly demonstrating the glacial-interglacial cyclicities of magnetic mineral types, composition, and grain size of Chinese loess-paleosol sequences under the influence of alternating strengthening and weakening of Eastern Asian paleomonsoon over the Quaternary period. Comprehensive analysis reveals that the relative content of high-coercivity antiferromagnetic minerals is higher in loess than in paleosol, whilst the absolute content of high-coercivity antiferromagnetic minerals in paleosol is generally higher than that in loess accompanying increasing intensity of pedogenesis. The mass-specific magnetic susceptibility (χ) shows distinctly positive correlations with anhysteretic susceptibility (χ_ARM), Saturation Isothermal Remanent Magnetization (SIRM) and magnetic grain size dependent parameters (χ_ARM/SIRM and χ_ARM/χ), indicating that the pedogenic producing Single Domain (SD) and small PSD ferrimagnetic particles contribute significantly to the magnetic susceptibility enhancement.     

Mechanism of frictional fusion in fault zones

Spherulitic pseudotachylytes from the Arunta Block formed by frictional fusion of mylonitic parent rocks during high-level reactivation of a previously ductile fault zone. Fusion occurred preferentially in mica-rich domains due to release of water through disruption of the mica lattice by frictional sliding. This generated selective localised melting of mica during frictional heating, with the production of initial pseudotachylyte melts enriched in water and ferromagnesian components. Subsequent fusion of adjacent salic phases, promoted by the high water content of the existing melt, would tend to shift the trend of later melts towards a total melt composition. Therefore, under conditions of frictional sliding, fusion appears to be favoured in crystalline quartzofeldspathic rocks possessing both a high shear strength, and a significant water content locked up in the lattices of hydrous minerals, principally biotite.The presence or pre-existence of glass in many pseudotachylytes demands that they cooled in a near-surface environment, i.e. at depths of less than about 5 km. Thus glassy pseudotachylytes must postdate associated mylonite series rocks, generally forming subsequent to exhumation of the mylonites to a higher level in the crust. Some non-glassy pseudotachylytes, however, may possibly form towards the end of movements in a ductile regime, as strain hardening sets in.     

高温高压及干燥条件下斜长石和辉石断层泥的摩擦滑动研究

岩石摩擦滑动的力学行为能够很好地用速率和状态依赖性摩擦本构关系来描述。在速率和状态依赖性本构关系中,速度依赖性参数a-b是控制摩擦滑动稳定性的重要参数。且a-b<0是断层上不稳定滑动成核的必要条件。为了进一步研究控制摩擦滑动的矿物成分因素,在已有辉长岩摩擦滑动实验结果的基础上,对辉长岩中主要矿物(斜长石和辉石)在不同加载条件下进行了3个系列的摩擦滑动实验研究。通过对实验结果的分析得到如下结论:(1)斜长石断层泥在实验温度范围内(<617℃)显示速度强化,且在大于450℃的高温区其速度依赖性参数a-b随温度的增大而增加。辉石断层泥的实验显示其有利于速度弱化滑动行为的出现,是造成辉长岩在615℃出现速度弱化的原因。(2)斜长石与辉石断层泥的摩擦强度都没有随温度的增加而显著变化。辉长岩断层泥的摩擦强度(1.83mm滑动位移处的值)为斜长石与辉石断层泥摩擦强度按体积百分比加权的平均值(摩擦系数精确到2位有效数字一致)。这一结果表明,辉长岩断层泥的应力支承结构可以抽象为一种双组分并列单元模型。(3)尽管前人研究结果表明石英控制了花岗岩的摩擦特性,但是某种主要矿物对岩石整体摩擦滑动性质的控制作用并不具有普适性。对于中性岩、基性岩而言,不能以一种主要矿物(如斜长石等)来判断岩石整体的摩擦滑动稳定性,否则会导致错误结论。     

The geochemistry of pseudotachylyte and its host rocks from the West Rand Goldfield, Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa: implications for pseudotachylyte genesis

The chemical composition of the pseudotachylyte in the West Rand Goldfield of the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa, is closely related to the composition of the host rocks and this is reflected in the colour of the pseudotachylyte. Grey pseudotachylyte is generally hosted by and similar in composition to quartzites of the Witatersrand Supergroup, whereas maroon pseudotachylyte has a similar relationship to the mafic lava of the Ventersdorp Supergroup. In some instances, the composition of the pseudotachylyte is intermediate between these two host rock types and a mixing process is proposed.

A study of the ferrous to ferric iron ratio provides limited evidence that pseudotachylyte is slightly more reduced than the rocks from which they have been derived.

The only elements that are consistently enriched in the pseudotachylyte, irrespective of host rock composition, are S, Pb and Au. It is speculated that this indicates the existence of a sulphide-bearing fluid phase along the fault zone either prior to or during pseudotachylyte formation.

Geochemical and petrographic evidence favour an origin by frictional fusion rather than ultracomminution for the pseudotachylyte from the West Rand Goldfield.     

胶东大磨曲家金矿床岩石磁组构、构造变形与金矿化

在胶东地区招远-平度断裂带上的大磨曲家金矿区选取了典型的构造区域进行岩石磁组构研究。沿着断裂带在不同构造部位的36个采样点钻取了112个定向岩心样品,所有样品均沿勘探线布置。磁组构研究显示,研究区以弱磁性岩石为主,总体上,胶东群变质岩的磁化率值较高,而玲珑黑云母花岗岩的磁化率值较低,尤以碎裂程度高的强蚀变岩的磁化率值最低;磁化率各向异性方位主要为NE向挤压,磁组构所指示的构造应力场与大磨曲家矿区的区域挤压应力方向是相同的;对具不同程度矿化的81线的Au含量与80线磁组构各向异性度(P值)进行对比研究发现,P值与金品位呈负相关关系;弱矿化糜棱岩中的金矿化在磁面理发育的岩石中较为发育,成矿晚期,Au元素含量随着岩石磁性的减弱而增加,特别是在强应变后弛豫阶段矿液充填于相对张性的石英脉中Au含量最高。     

Do faults preserve a record of seismic slip: A second opinion

Exhumed fault zones offer insights into deformation processes associated with earthquakes in unparalleled spatial resolution; however it can be difficult to differentiate seismic slip from slow or aseismic slip based on evidence in the rock record. Fifteen years ago, Cowan (1999) defined the attributes of earthquake slip that might be preserved in the rock record, and he identified pseudotachylyte as the only reliable indicator of past earthquakes found in ancient faults. This assertion was based on models of frictional heat production (Sibson, 1975, 1986) providing evidence for fast slip. Significant progress in fault rock studies has revealed a range of reaction products which can be used to detect frictional heating at peak temperatures less than the melt temperature of the rock. In addition, features formed under extreme transient stress conditions associated with the propagating tip of an earthquake rupture can now be recognized in the rock record, and are also uniquely seismic. Thus, pseudotachylyte is no longer the only indicator of fossilized earthquake ruptures.We review the criteria for seismic slip defined by Cowan (1999), and we determine that they are too narrow. Fault slip at rates in the range 10⁻⁴−10¹ m/s is almost certainly dynamic. This implies that features reproduced in experiments at rates as low as 10⁻⁴ m/s may be indicators of seismic slip. We conclude with a summary of the rock record of seismic slip, and lay out the current challenges in the field of earthquake geology.     

Seismic tomography from local crustal earthquakes beneath eastern Rif Mountains of Morocco

We applied a tomographic method to image an aseismic strike–slip fault in North Morocco and found that the occurrence of earthquakes is not only controlled by the state of tectonic stress but also by material heterogeneity in the crust. We have constructed an integrated model of seismic, electric, magnetic and heat flow properties across northeastern Morocco primarily based on a tomography inversion of local earthquake arrival times. The seismic images obtained show a pronounced low-velocity zone at 5 km depth parallels to the Nekor fault, coinciding with an anomalously high conductive and low gravity structure, which is interpreted as a fault gouge zone and/or a fluid-filled subsurface rock matrix. Below 10 km depth, a weak positive velocity zone indicates that the fault gouge is stable. The seismicity and the seismic velocity results for the Al-Hoceimas region show that the concentrations of earthquakes are confined in the high velocity area. This anomaly is interpreted to be a brittle and competent layer of the upper crust that sustains seismogenic stress. On the eastern coast line of Morocco, we infer that a high density, high velocity body exists in the shallowest layers of the upper crust, probably formed by Miocene volcanic rocks.