大陆亚碱性火山岩的成因多样性：以敦化—密山和东宁火山岩带为例

对东北牡丹江海浪、鸡西鸡林、东宁老黑山三处亚碱性玄武岩类进行了柏A卜”Ar定年和元素与Sr-Nd-Pb同位素组成研究,结果显示,始新世海浪（玄武）安山岩属钙碱性系列,相对富硅碱,贫铁钙,高度富集Rb、Ba、Sr,亏损Th、U、Nb、Ta,富集LREE及极低的HREE含量,与五大连池钾质火山岩相近的同位素组成（^206Pb／^204Pb=16．56～16．66,^207Pb／^204Pb=15．44—15．47,^208Pb／^204Pb=36．80—36．95;ISr=0．704882～0．705564;εNd=-4．05～2．29）,表明来源于较厚的、受交代作用影响的含石榴石富集（LoMu）岩石圈地幔;中中新世鸡林拉斑玄武岩分布极为局限,辉石斑晶发育骸晶结构,富铁、钙、钛,不亏损Nb、Ta,富集Ba、Sr,REE相对平坦,HREE高于OIB,Sr、Nd同位素组成相似于Samoa岛玄武岩,显示源区除软流圈成分外,还有EMII富集组分的加入;晚中新世老黑山拉斑玄武岩,低碱低钾,LREE轻度富集,Nb、Ta不明显亏损,同位素比值与镜泊湖一带中新世碱性玄武岩范围一致,主要来源于软流圈并与富集岩石圈（EMI）发生过相互作用。地幔源区经历了古近纪富集地幔源到中新世软流圈组分增多的演化。东北新生代拉斑玄武岩不同的地球化学特征为认识大陆拉斑玄武岩成因的多样性提供了有益启示。     

太行山地区中、新生代玄武质岩浆的源区特征与时空演化

本文总结了太行山地区中生代辉长岩和新生代玄武岩的元素和同位素组成，其组成显示它们的地幔源区存在着明显的差别。新生代玄武岩以碱性玄武岩为主，含有少量橄榄拉斑玄武岩，它们来自软流圈的部分熔融，并伴有少量古老岩石圈地幔组分的加入。相比之下，中生代辉长岩具有明显不同的地球化学特征：SiO2含量高，LREE和LILE（Ba，Th，U）富集以及HFSE（Nb，Ta，Zr和Ti）亏损，Sr-Nd同位素富集（大多数^87Sr／^86Sri〉0．705，^143Nd／^144Nd；〈0．512）、Pb同位素亏损（^206Ph／^204Pbi〈17．5，^207Ph／^204Pbi〈15．5，^208Pb／^204Pbi〈38．0）。这些特征表明中生代辉长岩来源于经过富硅熔体强烈改造的古老岩石圈地幔，这种富集改造过程很可能与华北克拉通内部元古代的俯冲／碰撞事件有关。古老且同位素富集的岩石圈地幔残存至新生代，并被新生代玄武岩携带的地幔橄榄岩捕虏体所记录。     

五大连池钾质火山岩的Sr、Nd、Pb同位素地球化学及岩浆的化学演化

五大连池火山岩是我国东部新生代最典型的钾质玄武岩。以富Ti、Na、K为特点，结晶分异使岩浆向富Si、富碱方向演化。岩石中Rb、Sr、Sin、Nd丰度与熔岩的碱质同步增长。Pb、Sr、Nd同位素组成很特殊，富放射成因Sr和Nd，但贫放射成因Pb，^37Sr/^34Sr，高于全球未分异现代值,^143Nd/^144Nd为0．512381-0.512433，低于全球未分异现代值；^206Pb/^204Pb,^207Pb/^204Pb,^208Pb/^204Pb分别对16.712-16.992,115,371-15.407,36.315-36.948,比许多大洋玄武岩和大陆玄武岩偏低。上述数据表明，其源区为无明显地壳物质混染的，未遭改造的原始富集地幔，同大洋玄武岩明显不同，暗示地幔的物质组成有区域性和不均匀性。     

胶北晚中生代煌斑岩的岩石地球化学特征及其成因研究

胶北煌斑岩分别采自龙口、烟台和威海地区，包括拉辉煌斑岩、斜闪正煌岩和角闪煌斑岩，煌斑岩K—Ar全岩年龄变化于89．3～169．5Ma，为晚中生代岩浆活动的产物。在岩石化学组成上，SiO2=42．02％～54．95％，以钙碱性系列为主．岩石以富集大离子亲石元素（LILE）（Ba，U，K，Th）和LREE，亏损高场强元素（HFSE）（Nb，Ta和Ti）为特征，Mg^#=33．9～53．9，Eu／Eu^＊=0．71～0．89，^87Sr／^86Sr初始比值0．707642～0．709791，εNd（t）为-17．6～-10．4，^206Pb／^204Pb=37．588～38．431，^207Pb／^204Pb=15．423～15．531，^206Pb／^204Pb=17．204～18．179。表明煌斑岩源自俯冲陆壳（扬子下地壳）在地幔源区发生交代作用时形成的富集型地幔的部分熔融体．考虑到煌斑岩具有大陆边缘弧玄武岩的特征，我们认为煌斑岩在成因上同样与古大洋板块的俯冲作用有关，为碰撞后弧岩浆作用形成的脉岩。     

华北克拉通北部古-中元古代富碱侵入岩的Nd、Sr、Pb同位素地球化学：岩石圈地幔富集的证据

华北克拉通北部古-中元古代富碱侵入岩主要分布在燕辽三叉裂堑系和辽吉拗拉谷中及附近,为一套高碱高钾的基性-中性岩,以正长岩类为主。本文通过开展系统的 Nd、Sr、Pb 同位素研究,发现所有岩体岩石均以高负ε_(Nd)(t)为特征,ε_(Nd)(t)=-3.4～-7.5,平均值为～4.8,这与研究区古-中元古代基性-超基性岩石的 Nd 同位素特征(ε_(Nd)(t)=-4～-8) 一致,与燕辽裂堑系发育的偏碱性火山岩 Nd 同位素特征(ε_(Nd)(t)=-4.3～-8.9)也比较相似,表明它们的物质来源相似,都与富集地幔有关。Sr 同位素初始比值(~(87)St/~(86)Sr)_i比较低,主要变化在0.7028～0.7053之间,平均值为0.7041。钾长石铅同位素组成普遍较低,~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb、~(207)pb/~(204)Pb、~(208)Pb/~(204)Pb 比值变化范围(梁屯-矿洞沟岩体除外)分别为14.500～15.70l、14.887～15.150和34.178～36.537,平均值分别为14.968、14.984和35.057。在ε_(Nd)(t)-ε_(Sr)(t)图解上,所有岩体的投影点均在地幔演化趋势线附近,比较接近 EMI 型富集地幔端员,暗示它们的物质来源与 EMI 型富集地幔有关;钾长石 Pb 同位素模式图也说明这些岩体物质来源与地幔和下地壳有关。通过两端员混合模拟,揭示了岩浆演化过程中存在少量的下地壳物质混染,平均约14%左右。从2.5Ga 左右开始华北克拉通岩石圈地幔的亏损程度逐渐变小,在2.2Ga 左右局部呈现富集性特征,1.85Ga时整个岩石圈地幔已经完全转变为富集性,之后富集程度越来越高。推测早期俯冲携带的壳源物质以及后期地幔流体的交代作用可能是岩石圈地幔逐渐转变为富集性的原因。     

大兴安岭北段牙克石地区玄武质火山岩的元素、 同位素地球化学特征及其地质意义

牙克石地区出露一套早白垩世玄武质火山岩,其SiO2含量为52．81%-53．39％,K2O含量为1．86％-2．87％,岩性为玄武质粗面安山岩。富集大离子亲石元素Rb和Ba,高场强元素Nb和Ta亏损明显,Zr和H阮明显异常,8Eu为0．77-0．82。从同住素的特点看,（^87Sr／^86Sr）,变化于0．704762-0．704941之间,εNd（t）为2．00～2．54;在εNd（t）-（^87Sr／^86Sr）闺解上,样品投影点落入洋岛玄武岩（OIB）和美国盆岭省范围内。^206Pb／^204pb为18．3288-18．4225,^207b／^204Pb为15、4566-15．4893,^208Pb／^204Pb为37．9401-38．0523：在。^207Pb/^24Pb-^206Pb.^204pb和,^208b／^304pb-^306Pb／^204pb图解上．样品投影点都落在亏损洋中脊玄武岩地幔附近。综合考虑本区火山岩的地质、地球化学特点,认为其来源于被俯冲洋壳交代的岩石圈地幔。     

大兴安岭北段牙克石地区玄武质火山岩的元素、同位素地球化学特征及其地质意义

牙克石地区出露一套早白垩世玄武质火山岩,其SiO2含量为52．81%-53．39％,K2O含量为1．86％-2．87％,岩性为玄武质粗面安山岩。富集大离子亲石元素Rb和Ba,高场强元素Nb和Ta亏损明显,Zr和H阮明显异常,8Eu为0．77-0．82。从同住素的特点看,（^87Sr／^86Sr）,变化于0．704762-0．704941之间,εNd（t）为2．00～2．54;在εNd（t）-（^87Sr／^86Sr）闺解上,样品投影点落入洋岛玄武岩（OIB）和美国盆岭省范围内。^206Pb／^204pb为18．3288-18．4225,^207b／^204Pb为15、4566-15．4893,^208Pb／^204Pb为37．9401-38．0523：在。^207Pb/^24Pb-^206Pb.^204pb和,^208b／^304pb-^306Pb／^204pb图解上．样品投影点都落在亏损洋中脊玄武岩地幔附近。综合考虑本区火山岩的地质、地球化学特点,认为其来源于被俯冲洋壳交代的岩石圈地幔。     

甘肃西秦岭新生代钾霞橄黄长岩和碳酸岩的微量、稀土和Sr，Nd，Pb同位素地球化学：地幔柱-岩石圈交换的证据

西秦岭新生代钾霞橄黄长岩和碳酸岩具有强烈富集LILE和LREE的特征，经球粒陨石标准化的REE分配模式与OIB十分相似。钾霞橄黄长岩和碳酸岩的(^87Sr／^86Sr)i分别在0．70381～0．70940和0．70529～0．71332之间，^144Nd／^143Nd分别介于0．512404～0．512924和0．512210～0．512928之间。经计算获得多数样品的εNd落在-3．4～5．58范围内，与OIB的εNd值一致。这两类岩石的^208Pb／^204Pb、^207Pb/^204Pb和^206Pb／^204Pb分别为37．613～39．330和38．060～38．995，15．842～16．441和15.545～15．677，以及18．418～22．4和18．149～19．062。采用主量元素MgO—Ni和ε(Nd)-(^87Sr/^86Sr)相关图，以及高场强元素比值Zr／Nb—La／Nb和Ba／La—Ba／Nb相关图以及。^208Pb／^204Pb-^206Pb/^204Pb，^207Pb／^204Pb-^206Pb／^204Pb相关图，一致证明本区火山岩具有与洋岛玄武岩(OIB)相似的地球化学特征，且源区具有EM1和EM11富集端员的混合。但是本区火山岩高的Nb／Ta比和强烈富集Nb等高场强元素，以及较高的^144Nd／^143Nd值，表明该火山岩地球化学具有某种特殊性。结合对西秦岭深部地球物理资料及地质构造背景和演化历史的分析，提出西秦岭新生代钾霞橄黄长岩和碳酸岩的成因与地幔柱的活动有关，源区包含了EM1和EM11富集端员的组分。EM1和EM11富集端员的成因与地幔柱/软流圈流体的作用有关，也与大洋板片的脱水作用和大陆岩石圈的拆层作用有关。该区特殊的大地构造背景和演化历史为上述几种作用的联合提供了可能。它不仅较好地解释了该火山岩地球化学方面的特殊性，及钾霞橄黄长岩与碳酸岩共生的事实，同时也证明新生代火山岩的成因是地幔柱．岩石圈相互作用的产物。     

黑龙江镜泊湖地区第四纪玄武岩的Sr、Nd、Pb同位素组成及其地幔源区特征

本文首次对黑龙江镜泊湖地区第四纪玄武岩的Sr、Nd、Pb同位素组成进行了系统研究。结果表明,尽管不同时代、不同空间上生成的玄武岩在岩石化学、稀土和微量元素特征上差别明显,但其Sr、Nd、Pb同位素组成却有明显的相似性,均具有低Sr、Pb和相对高的Nd同位素值（87Sr/86Sr=0.70396～0.704537;143Nd/144Nd=0.512656～0.512786;206Pb/204Pb=17.0856～1 7.5034;207Pb/204Pb=15.2689～15.3461;208Pb/204Pb= 37.0999～37.4363）,由此指示了该区玄武岩的源区是DMM和EMI二 端元混合的结果。本文将其解释为与含有再循环的下地壳物质的地幔柱活动引起该区软流圈地幔的部分熔融有关,但在部分熔融之前发生了交代作用。     

大陆裂谷环境中基性和酸性岩浆作用的关系：中国西北部天山石炭纪碰撞后裂谷酸性火山岩的岩石地球化学研究

本文报道了天山石炭纪裂谷酸性火山岩的岩石地球化学数据，目的在于探讨酸性岩浆的岩石成因。天山石炭纪裂谷火山岩的不相容元素对不相容元素图解显示稳定的正相关趋势；酸性熔岩同位素比值。^37Sr／^86Sr（t）=0．69988～0．70532；εNd（t）=4．76～8．00；^206Pb／^204Pb（t）=17．435～18．017；^207Pb／^204Pb（t）=15．438～15．509；^208Pb／^238Pb（t）=37．075～37．723的区间含盖了基性熔岩同位素比值的范围。这些数据表明流纹岩和玄武岩之间有一种成因联系，但还不能确定酸性岩和玄武岩间究竟是分离结晶还是部分熔融关系。     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians     

Pebbles,Shapes, and Equilibria

The shape of sedimentary particles may carry important information on their history. Current approaches to shape classification (e.g. the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system) rely on shape indices derived from the measurement of the three principal axes of the approximating tri-axial ellipsoid. While these systems have undoubtedly proved to be useful tools, their application inevitably requires tedious and ambiguous measurements, also classification involves the introduction of arbitrarily chosen constants. Here we propose an alternative classification system based on the (integer) number of static equilibria. The latter are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. As opposed to the Zingg system, our method relies on counting rather than measuring. We show that equilibria typically exist on two well-separated (micro and macro) scales. Equilibria can be readily counted by simple hand experiments, i.e. the new classification scheme is practically applicable. Based on statistical results from two different locations we demonstrate that pebbles are well mixed with respect to the new classes, i.e. the new classification is reliable and stable in that sense. We also show that the Zingg statistics can be extracted from the new statistics; however, substantial additional information is also available. From the practical point of view, E-classification is substantially faster than the Zingg method.