Water reservoirs, irrigation and sedimentation in Central Asia: a first-cut assessment for Uzbekistan

Water reservoirs play an important role in areas with limited and erratic precipitation where water is stored and re-distributed later for different purposes. Irrigation is primarily a major water consumer in arid countries of Central Asia for the economic development, employment and food security of the region. The major rivers of Central Asia (e.g., Amu Darya, Syr Darya, and Zerafshan) are turbid watercourses. Sedimentation reduces the main reservoir asset i.e., its volume capacity. In addition, vast territories of the region’s countries have been transformed for agriculture to grow water intensive crops such as cotton, rice and wheat during the Soviet Union that dramatically accelerated soil erosion by water and wind. Thus, many man-made water reservoirs are affected by high sedimentation rates. Moreover, uneven spatial and temporal water resources and a Soviet-inherited unified hydraulic infrastructure have raised transboundary reservoir management issues over water resources allocation among the countries in the region such as Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. The rivers such as Syr Darya and Amu Darya are already regulated by more than 78 and 94 %, respectively and attempts for new reservoir projects upstream raises increased concerns of the downstream countries (e.g., the Rogun hydropower station in Tajikistan and the Toktogul reservoir in Kyrgyzstan). For instance, the uncoordinated use of reservoirs has caused the Arnasai lake problem in Uzbekistan with environmental, material damage and social unrest. The aim of this paper is first to review the present conditions and the role of man-made water reservoirs for irrigation in Central Asia with special focus on Uzbekistan, second to document past and current reservoir sedimentation conditions in Uzbekistan and third to discuss research carried out by Soviet and present-time local research community in the domain of erosion and sedimentation in the region.     

Sedimentation and erosion in connection with ship traffic,Göteborg Harbour,Sweden

Two detailed bathymetric surveys document the effects of increased turbulence due to jet-propelled ferries and other ship traffic in Göteborg Harbour. Sedimentation is enhanced in areas where the water stratification is disturbed by harbour design and ship traffic. However, accumulation is dependent on bottom conditions, and erosion is prevalent in areas with heavy ship traffic, especially at turning sites. A geostatistical analysis of spatial bathymetric data indicates greater variability but a longer range of dependence between sites within areas of accumulation in comparison with those characterised by erosion or mixed erosion and accumulation. Changes in the geostatistical relationships induced by directing the comparison of sites along or across the channel are also possible to interpret in connection with the sedimentation conditions. Bathymetric variations, mineralogical trends, and contaminant changes support the interpretation of high bottom sediment mobility and the focusing of accumulation and erosion in specific areas.     

Sedimentation assessment in a multipurpose reservoir in Central Kerala,India

Dams and their reservoirs, constructed to manage the water scarcity problems of a region, sometimes lose whole or part of their functionality due to sedimentation. This issue, seen as a negative impact as far as reservoir life and its purpose is concerned, can be a boon to the construction industry, by providing a highly demanding construction material in the form of sand dredged from the reservoirs. Malampuzha reservoir, a multipurpose reservoir in the South Indian state of Kerala, is also losing considerable part of its storage due to siltation. This paper assesses the rate of sedimentation in Malampuzha reservoir, through bathymetric survey and suggests measures for utilization of the removable sediment. Our analysis has shown that the reservoir capacity is reduced from 226 to 205.19 Mm³; a reduction in capacity of 20.81 Mm³ in 55 years. The rate of sedimentation of the reservoir is estimated as 16.95 mm/year. The dead storage capacity of the reservoir has reduced to 47.5 % from the original at present. The composition of deposited sediments is also identified, based on which its productive use is recommended.     

The reservoir effect on hydrogeological conditions of shore areas of the ivankovo reservoir

The construction of reservoirs on large rivers in the USSR greatly influences the nature of adjacent areas. The water percolating into reservoir shores replenishes existing aquifers and creates new ones. The water volume formed in this way may be sometimes compared to the storage of the reservoirs. So seepage water is not lost; it remains in an artifically saturated zone and may be used for water supply and irrigation. The negative aspects are the waterlogging of adjacent areas, in topographic depressions, in particular, and soil salinization, especially in southern regions. The analysis and generalization of data on the groundwater regime formation in reservoir shore areas are useful for various branches of the national economy. The Ivankovo Reservoir on the Volga River having a long record of observations has been selected for the studies, which are discussed in this paper.     

东海西湖凹陷平湖组富煤环境相控储层预测技术

储层预测的常规方法是地震确定性反演和叠后地质统计学反演,但这些方法难以解决复杂地质背景中薄储层的预测。西湖凹陷平湖组埋深大,沉积环境复杂,储层相变快且普遍发育薄煤层,其储层预测一直是勘探开发的重点和难点。采用分步反演方法,在地质模式的指导下,基于本区岩石物理特征,优先利用叠后地质统计学反演方法预测煤层,再将煤层作为已知的岩相信息,建立三维岩相比例体,用于约束叠前地质统计学反演方法,进而达到提高分辨率、精细雕刻富煤环境中薄储层的目的。该技术有效解决了东海煤系地层储层预测可靠性差的难题,保障了开发井的顺利实施,将平湖组储层预测精度提高了15%,深化了沉积储层认识,具有较大的推广应用价值。     

西安地区水库供水调度研究

针对西安市严重缺水问题,首先采用月流量延时曲线和月流量超越几率曲线分析了西安地区地表水源的水文特性;其次通过水库群联合仿真调度和无水库调度两种方式为西安市供水,以供水保证率和缺水指数为评价指标,评价西安市供水水平,结果显示:①无水库调节是无法满足西安市的现状用水;②三库联合仿真调度在2030年时,年平均弃水量仍高达2亿m3,说明该区水资源开发还有一定的潜力.     

水中自然电场法探测病态水库岩溶渗漏通道———以金鸡河水库一级水电站为例

在岩溶区修建的水库或矿山尾矿库等建筑物,常因库区岩溶地质条件复杂而出现库水或污水渗漏等问题,岩溶渗漏通道勘察中常用的物探方法多布置在库区的大坝、坝肩等库岸陆地一带,未能对库内的库底岩溶塌陷等岩溶渗漏通道直接进行探测与评价,致使探测与治理效果往往不佳。本文以桂北金鸡河水库一级水电站放水涵管旁岩溶渗漏通道探测为例,研究水上自然电场法探测水库岩溶渗漏通道的原理、现场工作方法及探测效果。研究区出露地层主要由泥盆系榴江组（D3l）石灰岩夹白云岩、白云质灰岩,泥盆系东岗岭阶（D2d）白云岩、石灰岩、泥质灰岩组成,隐伏岩溶中等发育。区内一级水电站放水管入水口放水可引起强烈水上自然电位负心区域场,经采用圆周平均法划分水上自然电位区域场与剩余局部异常计算,分离出6个被强烈区域场淹盖了的次级似等轴状或似椭圆状负心水上自然电位剩余局部异常。经潜水员潜水入库内查看,这6个负心剩余局部异常区在库底均有岩溶塌陷或岩溶开口或库底渗漏天窗一一对应,其中,16线46-48号测点附近出现的似等轴状负心剩余局部异常对应的库底岩溶塌陷规模最大,塌陷坑直径约1.8 m,塌陷坑深约2.5 m,其余异常区对应的库底渗漏天窗或岩溶开口规模次之。经库内外水的简易连通实验及工程地质钻探,物探异常查证效果好。水上自然电场法可用于岩溶病态库区水上应急、快速圈定浅层岩溶渗漏通道范围等岩溶地质问题调查。      

储层宏观非均质性研究——以吉林油田大208区黑帝庙油层为例

储层非均质性是影响油气藏中油、气、水渗流及油气采收率的主要内因。进行储层非均质研究,对查明油藏剩余油分布、采取合理注采措施、提高采收率显得十分必要。以吉林油田大208区黑帝庙油层三角洲前缘亚相储层为例,采用隔夹层识别对比、沉积微相分析、地质统计学系数和劳伦兹系数方法分析了层间、层内和平面非均质性。研究表明:黑帝庙油层发育3套稳定隔层,据此可划分为3套开发层系;夹层在各单砂体中比较发育,应将夹层分割的注采井归为不同注采井网;非均质性受沉积微相影响明显,水下分流河道和河口坝微相的非均质性最强;地质统计学参数和劳伦兹系数研究表明,黑帝庙油层10个单砂体均为极强的非均质性,统计学参数往往偏离强非均质标准甚远,而劳伦兹参数值分布于0～1间,更能直观定量的表现出储层宏观非均质性强弱。     

北塘凹陷古近系沙河街组三段沉积特征及储层的影响因素

北塘凹陷古近系沙河街组三段储层储集物性差是造成其油藏产量偏低的主要原因。在观察岩心、分析沉积相和沉积体系平面分布的基础上，利用大量岩心物性数据和其他地质资料，系统讨论了其储层特征及影响储层储集性能的主要地质因素。认为北塘凹陷古近系沙河街组三段主要发育扇三角洲、滑塌重力流、湖相等类型沉积相，发育北部和西部两个物源，主要含油气区塘沽、新村等地区位于两个物源的交汇区，以发育中等-差储层为主，影响储层发育的主要因素包括原始的沉积相带、成岩作用（压实作用、胶结作用和溶解作用等）、油气成藏时间、油藏异常压力以及火成岩分布等。     

耦合水库群参数化方案的区域陆面水文模拟

中国水库数目众多,密集的水库运行和调蓄影响着陆地水循环和陆气间的水分能量交换过程,给高强度开发地区水文规律认知和水文模拟及预报带来了挑战。围绕这一问题,本研究以鄱阳湖流域及流域内千余座水库为研究对象,从水库水量平衡方程、水库蓄泄规则、多阻断扩散波汇流等方面构建了水库群参数化方案,并从地表水、地下水、蒸散发、能量通量等角度实现了其与陆面水文双向耦合模式（CLHMS）的动态耦合。结果表明:所构建的水库群参数化方案可以较好地模拟水库的蓄泄过程,提高了耦合模式在鄱阳湖流域的径流模拟精度;水库群可以使赣江、信江、抚河丰水期径流减少3.7%~6.0%,枯水期径流增加5.9%~12.6%,多年平均径流减少0.6%~1.5%;在空间分布上,水库群对流域中部和北部径流的调蓄作用相对显著。本研究所改进的陆面水文模式可以为高强度人类活动影响下气象、水文、水资源交叉领域的研究提供分析工具和模型基础,从而支撑变化环境下区域水资源的可持续利用。     

梯级水库水温影响的极限

水库的修建给防洪、发电、灌溉、供水等带来巨大经济效益的同时,也对环境产生一定的影响,尤其是水库泄流对下游河道水温的改变,扰乱下游动、植物繁殖与生长的自然节律,而梯级水库无疑将这一影响进行了放大。为研究水库梯级修建对水温的极限影响,构建了虚拟水库Alpha,并使Alpha水库首尾相连无限叠加,采用宽度平均的立面二维数学模型CE-QUAL-W2对梯级水库水温进行模拟。结果表明:河流梯级开发带来的水温累积影响存在极限,梯级开发使水温分层现象极大地弱化,但库区分层结构不会消失;经过22个梯级调节,水库下泄水温相对来流水温不再变化,在同一时刻、同一位置无论是表层水温还是库底水温均与上游梯级相同,库区流场也与上游流场相同;水库水温累积影响达到极限表明入流热量、出流热量完全达到平衡。     

塔里木盆地富满大型碳酸盐岩油气聚集区走滑断裂控储模式

塔里木盆地台盆区深层海相油气勘探目标由层间岩溶向断控岩溶转变,并在处于坳陷区的富满地区发现了以走滑断裂为主控因素的断控型油田。富满地区储层特征与盆地内古隆起区、斜坡区均有不同,因此需要建立适合研究区的走滑断裂控储模式。本次研究通过高密度三维地震资料刻画了研究区走滑断裂的分布,利用岩心、测井、试井资料以及缝洞体识别技术明确了不同类型的储层分布,分析了研究区走滑断裂样式与差异变形对储层发育的影响,建立了走滑断裂控储模式。研究结果表明:(1)富满大型碳酸盐岩油气聚集区储集空间主要由多期走滑构造破裂作用与岩溶作用形成的洞穴型、裂缝-孔洞型、裂缝型与孔洞型空间组成;(2)走滑断裂活动性越强,断裂带宽度越大,储层发育规模越大,张扭段与压扭段断层破碎带型储层较平移段平面分布范围更广,纵向发育深度更大;(3)张扭段为汇水区,断裂联通性好,有利于大气流体下渗以及热流体上涌从而对储层进行溶蚀改造;压扭段为分流区,岩溶储层多发育于断裂带两侧,断裂开启程度低,受流体改造程度低于张扭段。     

油藏中CO_2矿物捕获能力研究

利用TOUGHREACT软件,根据示范工程实验区大情字井的地层条件,针对含油及非含油储层哪一条件更适宜CO_2地质储存,设置了盐水组与含油组两组方案进行对比模拟。结果显示,含油组地层水中主要离子浓度及总矿化度低于盐水组,主要固碳矿物片钠铝石的生成量和CO_2的封存量明显小于盐水组。残余油的存在降低了矿物与水溶液进行离子交换的比表面积和储层的含水饱和度,并且占据矿物沉淀空间。尽管水岩作用受限,但油藏仍然可完成CO_2地质封存,且诸多优点表明油藏仍是CO_2地质封存的有利场所。     

High-resolution facies and porosity models of the upper Jurassic Arab-D carbonate reservoir using an outcrop analogue, central Saudi Arabia

Subsurface models of hydrocarbon reservoirs are coarse and of low resolution when compared with the actual geologic characteristics. Therefore, the understanding of the three-dimensional architecture of reservoir units is often incomplete. Outcrop analogues are commonly used to understand the spatial continuity of reservoir units. In this study, a Late Jurassic outcrop analogue for the Arab-D reservoir of central Saudi Arabia was used to build a high-resolution model that captures fine geologic details. Subsurface reservoir lithofacies were matched with those from the studied outcrop, and porosity values derived from published core and well log data from the Ain Dar, Uthmanyah, and Shudgum areas of the Ghawar Field, eastern Saudi Arabia, were then applied to the equivalent lithofacies in the outcrop. Maximum, minimum, and average subsurface porosity for each lithofacies were distributed in the facies model using a geostatistical algorithm to produce nine porosity models for the field data. Several realisations were run to visualise the variability in each model and to quantitatively measure the uncertainty associated with the models. The results indicated that potential reservoir zones were associated with grainstone, packstone, and some wackestone layers. Semivariogram analysis of the lithofacies showed good continuity in the N-S direction and less continuity in the E-W direction. The high-resolution lithofacies models detected permeability barriers and isolated low porosity bodies within the potential reservoir zones. This model revealed the porosity distribution in areas smaller than one cell in the subsurface model and highlighted the uncertainty associated with several aspects of the model.     

Estimation of water flow from upper reservoir of Azad pumped storage power plant,using geostatistical methods

The objective of this paper is to estimate water seepage from the upper reservoir of Azad pumped storage power plant (PSPP), based on combined geotechnical investigations and geostatistical methods. Azad PSPP has been located in Sanandaj Province in Iran. In order to select the optimum water tightening alternative, such as clay blanket, concrete cover (or concrete lining), geomembrane, asphalt cover etc, estimation of water seepage from the reservoir is essential. Six exploratory boreholes were drilled at the pumped storage reservoir area and permeability tests (Lugeon tests) were conducted in all of them. Records at the boreholes have been considered as the main source for seepage calculations. Due to expansion of upper reservoir and a few boreholes, distribution of permeability and permeability changes in the reservoir area is not indicator of reservoir. In this research using geostatistical method (Kriging), lugeon values have been estimated for walls of reservoir. According to correspondence between estimated permeability distribution and geological conditions, the estimated values are acceptable. In addition results show that in about 60% of tests, permeability is very high and potential of water seepage is very high. Seepage was estimated for reservoir by using both analytical (vedernikov method) and numerical method. Results from both methods are very close and the average of seepage is around 280000 m³/day. From the results and general geological considerations, seepage is concentrated at fault zones. Results show that by using appropriate permeability distribution, the estimated values of water seepage are reliable. Due to the high amount of water seepage and economic importance of water in this region, water tightening is necessary.     

Precipitation spatial variability and dry areas temporal stability for different elevation classes in the Macta basin (Algeria)

The water availability relies primarily on precipitation whose spatial and temporal variability depends on meteorological and topographic attributes. Water becomes a precious natural resource, especially in semiarid areas. Generally, decisions on water resources are made on the whole watershed, but the variability of precipitation is related to topography. The work was aimed at quantifying the spatial variability of annual precipitation for a 40-year-long time series in the Macta basin (Algeria) by using a geostatistical approach and to detect the temporal stability of dry areas. To assess if annual precipitation variability could depend upon the elevation, the study area was divided into five geographical units (polygons) based on elevation and polygon kriging was applied. For each hydrologic year, the standardized relative difference of precipitation (SRDP) was evaluated and dry areas identified. The temporal stability of SRDP with elevation was assessed using the Spearman rank coefficient. Geostatistical approach showed different variability structures of annual precipitation over the considered period. Results highlighted differences in SRDP within the geographical units located at different elevation and the non-stability of dry periods with time within the same polygon. A remarkable dry tendency was assessed in the northern polygon, while the polygons at higher elevations were dominated by temporal instability. The spatio-temporal non-stability of dry areas might be attributed to the change in general atmospheric circulation in North Africa over the last decades and to the nonlinear interaction among precipitation and orography. The identification of dry areas can help decision-makers to plan management and conservation programs in Algeria.     

Application of geostatistical methods to estimation of water flow from upper reservoir of Azad pumped storage power plant

The objective of this paper is to estimate water seepage from the upper reservoir of Azad pumped storage power plant, based on combined geotechnical investigations and geostatistical methods. In order to select the optimum water tightening alternative, such as clay blanket, concrete cover (or concrete lining), geomembrane, asphalt cover, etc., estimation of water seepage from the reservoir is essential. Six exploratory boreholes were drilled at the pumped storage reservoir area and permeability tests (Lugeon tests) were conducted in all of them. Records at the boreholes have been considered as the main source for seepage calculations. Due to expansion of upper reservoir and a few boreholes, distribution of permeability and permeability changes in the reservoir area is not an indicator for reservoir. In this research using geostatistical method (Kriging), Lugeon values have been estimated for walls of reservoir. According to correspondence between estimated permeability distribution and geological conditions, the estimated values are acceptable. In addition, results show that in about 60% of tests, permeability is very high and potential of water seepage is very dangerous. Afterward, seepage was estimated for reservoir by using both analytical (Vedernikov method) and numerical method. Results from both methods are very close together and the average seepage is around 280,000 m³/day according to analytical and numerical results. Regarding results and general geological considerations, seepage is concentrated at fault zones. Results show that using appropriate permeability distribution, the estimated values of water seepage are acceptable and reliable. Due to the high amount of water seepage and economical value of water in this region, water tightening is necessary.     

Neural networks and their derivatives for history matching and reservoir optimization problems

In geosciences, complex forward problems met in geophysics, petroleum system analysis, and reservoir engineering problems often require replacing these forward problems by proxies, and these proxies are used for optimizations problems. For instance, history matching of observed field data requires a so large number of reservoir simulation runs (especially when using geostatistical geological models) that it is often impossible to use the full reservoir simulator. Therefore, several techniques have been proposed to mimic the reservoir simulations using proxies. Due to the use of experimental approach, most authors propose to use second-order polynomials. In this paper, we demonstrate that (1) neural networks can also be second-order polynomials. Therefore, the use of a neural network as a proxy is much more flexible and adaptable to the nonlinearity of the problem to be solved; (2) first-order and second-order derivatives of the neural network can be obtained providing gradients and Hessian for optimizers. For inverse problems met in seismic inversion, well by well production data, optimal well locations, source rock generation, etc., most of the time, gradient methods are used for finding an optimal solution. The paper will describe how to calculate these gradients from a neural network built as a proxy. When needed, the Hessian can also be obtained from the neural network approach. On a real case study, the ability of neural networks to reproduce complex phenomena (water cuts, production rates, etc.) is shown. Comparisons with second polynomials (and kriging methods) will be done demonstrating the superiority of the neural network approach as soon as nonlinearity behaviors are present in the responses of the simulator. The gradients and the Hessian of the neural network will be compared to those of the real response function.     

安塞油田杏河地区长6油层沉积微相研究

在岩心描述的基础上，对杏河地区长6油层沉积相进行了分析，提出了该区主要沉积相为湖泊环境的河控三角洲体系，主要为三角洲前缘亚相沉积，主要沉积微相有水下分流河道、分流河口砂坝、前缘砂席和分流间等，分流河道和河口砂坝是本区占主导地位的骨架砂体。该区长6油层的三角洲体系是安塞三角洲体系最早发育的一支，早期分流来自于北部，后期分流转由东北方向进入，由于各期分流河道迁移、袭夺、决口以及因压实的均衡调整等，从而形成三角洲复合体内部各分流三角洲砂体的相互叠置交错。根据岩心微相分析、小层砂体形态和测井剖面对比分析，对该区长6油层砂组及小层的沉积微相进行了研究，掌握了沉积微相的时空展布和变化规律。     

鄂尔多斯盆地上古生界砂岩储集层控制因素分析

同沉积期火山作用、物源条件、构造作用、气候条件、沉积作用及成岩作用,是控制鄂尔多斯盆地上古生界砂岩储集层发育的主要因素。同沉积期火山作用提供的易溶火山碎屑组分（包括颗粒和凝灰质填隙物）,对区内中高渗次生溶孔型储集层的形成起决定性控制作用。盆地北部物源区巨厚的、富含中粗粒石英颗粒的风化母岩层集中剥露,是导致盆地内山西—石盒子期中粗粒砂质沉积物集中堆积、形成厚层砂岩沉积的主要原因。局部构造的控制主要表现为：奥陶系被下切较深的继承性洼陷,往往是河流长期作用的厚砂层发育区。气候因素主要通过影响母岩的化学风化作用强度来控制岩石的成分成熟度,盆地二叠系山西组煤系地层中石英砂岩的形成与该区二叠纪潮湿的气候条件有密切的关系。沉积控制包括沉积相带控制和沉积微相控制两方面,前者主要表现在对砂体分布的宏观控制上,后者主要表现为不同砂体微相的物性差异。成岩作用的控制是多方面的,主要分析了该区砂岩在成岩早期的碳酸盐矿物的充填交代和胶结作用对储集层致密化的影响,其形成可能与砂层长期处在近地表潜水面附近的暴露环境有关。