滇西腾冲-梁河地块早白垩世岩浆作用

滇西腾冲-梁河地区分布有大量的花岗岩。本文对梁河地区二长花岗岩进行了锆石LA-ICPMS U-Pb测年和Hf同位素分析,研究表明,锆石具有清晰的韵律环带,其Th/U值为0.34～1.65,为典型的岩浆锆石;锆石U-Pb年龄显示,花岗岩有三个年龄峰值(139.6±2.3Ma、129.7±5.2 Ma和118.8±4.2 Ma),表明该区早白垩世经历了多期岩浆作用;εHf(t)值为-20.15～-30.65,tCDM为2458～3083Ma,暗示花岗岩源自古老地壳部分熔融。该区片麻岩中具有2503Ma的碎屑锆石年龄,据此推测可能存在新太古宙基底。上述研究说明,该区早白垩世花岗岩的形成可能与班公湖-怒江洋的俯冲作用有关。     

那邦地区花岗片麻岩的锆石U-Pb年代学及Hf同位素组成特征

滇西那邦地区三个花岗片麻岩样品的锆石U-Pb定年分别给出了55.0±0.5 Ma、50.4±1.3 Ma以及51.6±1.1 Ma的结晶年龄,其εHf(t)介于-6.7～ +7.8之间,具有壳幔双源特征,对应的二阶段模式年龄为0.63 ～1.55 Ga.上述年龄的获得表明滇西那邦地区原划为前寒武纪的混合岩和花岗片麻岩至少有相当一部分形成于新生代.经与邻近腾冲-梁河花岗岩带及西藏冈底斯岩浆带的年代学对比,认为沿冈底斯-那邦地区存在广泛的始新世岩浆事件,其成因可能与印度板块和欧亚板块的初始碰撞有关.     

云南格咱岛弧带休瓦促Mo W Cu矿床两期岩浆作用的锆石U Pb年龄、Hf同位素组成及构造意义

锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb定年结果显示,休瓦促Mo-W-Cu矿床含矿花岗闪长岩的形成年龄为202±3.5Ma,形成于甘孜-理塘洋壳向西俯冲时期;含矿二长花岗岩的形成年龄为83.3±1.7Ma,形成于燕山晚期造山后伸展环境。Hf同位素原位分析结果显示,花岗闪长岩中锆石的ε_(Hf)(t)值为-2.87~4.12(平均为0.09),T_(MD1)年龄541~828Ma,T_(DM2)年龄为719~1109Ma,表明岩体形成的物质来源除壳源物质之外,也有幔源物质的混入;二长花岗岩中锆石的ε_(Hf)(t)值为-7.96~-2.75(平均为-5.54),T_(MD1)年龄为820~1019Ma,T_(DM2)年龄为1102~1391Ma,ε_(Hf)(t)0,表明岩石是由古老地壳物质的部分熔融形成的产物。休瓦促两期含矿岩体的锆石U-Pb定年与Hf同位素原位分析显示,区内存在晚三叠世和晚白垩世两期构造-岩浆-成矿作用。晚三叠世花岗闪长岩岩浆侵入及Cu多金属成矿作用与洋壳俯冲造山有关;而晚白垩世二长花岗岩岩浆侵入及Mo多金属成矿作用主要形成于陆-陆碰撞造山的构造背景。研究表明,从晚三叠世洋壳俯冲造山至晚白垩世造山后伸展作用过程中都存在构造-岩浆-成矿作用的发生,且在晚三叠世构造-岩浆活动的基础上叠加了晚白垩世的成岩成矿作用,这为区内复合叠加成矿作用的研究提供了例证。     

班怒带西段尕尔穷铜金矿两套侵入岩源区及其地质意义——来自Hf同位素特征的指示

尕尔穷铜金矿位于班公湖—怒江缝合带西段南缘的措勤—申扎火山岩浆弧内,为与侵入岩有关的矽卡岩型-破碎带型铜金(铁)矿床。在已有石英闪长岩LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb测年的基础上,进一步对其进行锆石Hf同位素研究,同时对最新勘查成果显示具有一定成矿潜力的花岗斑岩进行LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年和Hf同位素研究,确定了两套侵入岩的形成顺序;结合前人总结的岩石地球化学特征,利用Hf同位素对其岩浆源区进行示踪。结果显示:花岗斑岩锆石206Pb/238U年龄加权平均值为(83.2±0.7)Ma,较石英闪长岩晚4 Ma左右,其初始176Hf/177Hf值为0.282 235～0.283 073,εHf(t)值为-17.2～12.5;石英闪长岩锆石初始176Hf/177Hf值为0.282 800～0.283 015,εHf(t)值为3.5～10.5。结合二者地球化学特征显示:石英闪长岩和花岗斑岩可能是同一岩浆系统不同分异阶段的产物,前者主要起源于具有幔源印记的初生地壳,而花岗斑岩具有和石英闪长岩相似的岩浆源区,但明显混入上地壳基底物质;暗示晚白垩世班怒带西段南缘内随着南羌塘—三江复合板片与冈底斯—念青唐古拉板片之间的弧-陆碰撞,先成的具有幔源印记的初生地壳重熔形成岩浆,随着碰撞的继续和岩浆的上涌分异,部分上地壳受挤压或热效应进一步重熔并参与岩浆系统中,由早至晚形成了由幔源特征向幔-壳混合源特征源区逐渐转变的花岗岩演化系列。尕尔穷铜金矿是起源于具有幔源印记的初生地壳的花岗岩的成矿专属性表现。     

太行山北段王安镇杂岩体中酸性岩锆石SHRIMP U-Pb定年、Hf同位素组成及其地质意义

太行山北段王安镇杂岩体花岗闪长岩、二长花岗岩、髫髻山组火山岩-安山岩精细SHRIMP U-Pb定年和Hf同位素地球化学研究表明:花岗闪长岩体形成于135.7±1.3Ma,二长花岗岩体形成于133.7±1.1Ma,安山岩形成于138.89±0.9Ma,与杂岩体内基性侵入岩(138Ma)具有相似的形成年龄。花岗闪长岩的锆石εHf(t)值为-21.81~-16.09,相应tDMC为2.2~2.6Ga;二长花岗εHf(t)值为-20.50~-16.31,相应tDMC为2.2~2.5Ga,与杂岩体内基性岩体具有极为相似的Hf同位素特征εHf(t)=-22.8~-15.3。杂岩体中酸性岩类岩石成因可解释为:富集地幔(EMI)部分熔融形成的玄武质岩浆遭受一定程度的地壳混染以及之后的分离结晶作用对形成王安镇杂岩体中酸性岩类发挥着关键作用。与华北克拉通内部其他地区相同,晚侏罗-早白垩世北太行地区处于软流圈上涌的岩石圈伸展构造背景。     

鲁西早白垩世基性侵入岩的锆石Hf同位素组成变化及其成因

鲁西北部地区的淄博和临朐辉长闪长岩的锆石原位U-Pb定年分析显示,它们分别形成于128±2Ma和132±1Ma,与鲁西早白垩世大规模岩浆活动时间一致,是华北克拉通岩石圈减薄过程的岩浆活动产物。与鲁西北部同时期的济南、邹平辉长岩相比,淄博和临朐辉长闪长岩的锆石εHf(t)值(分别为-5.1～-2.4和-2.4～+3.2)明显较高,并具有相对年轻的亏损地幔Hf模式年龄TDM(分别为876～984Ma和639～867Ma),对应于相对高的全岩εNd(t)值,指示其岩浆源区有更大比例的软流圈地幔物质贡献。鲁西北部地区的早白垩世基性侵入岩的岩浆源区以华北克拉通内部的古老富集岩石圈地幔为主,从华北克拉通内部往郯庐断裂带锆石εHf(t)值显示出升高趋势,表明软流圈地幔物质的参与比例增大。郯庐断裂带是导致鲁西地区早白垩世基性岩浆活动时空不均一性的重要岩石圈薄弱带。     

皖南泾县茂林岩体锆石U-Pb年龄和Hf同位素特征

安徽茂林岩体为中国东部中生代皖南构造-岩浆带中的一个浅层侵入岩体,是檀树岭钼矿和湛岭钼矿的成矿母岩。该岩体的主要岩性为花岗闪长岩、花岗斑岩、斑状花岗闪长岩、二长花岗岩等。对茂林花岗闪长岩体进行LA-ICP-MS锆石UPb测年,结果显示锆石Th/U值为0.38~0.66,为典型的岩浆成因锆石。花岗闪长岩~(206)Pb/~(238)U年龄加权平均值为140.8±0.8Ma(n=19,MSWD=2.3),结合锆石自形、岩浆环带发育等特点,该年龄为茂林花岗闪长岩的成岩年龄,显示岩体形成于早白垩世。锆石Hf同位素分析结果显示,茂林花岗闪长岩锆石振荡岩浆环带具负εHf(t)值(-9.7~-6.2),揭示花岗闪长岩主要形成于下地壳的熔融。     

粤东田东钨锡多金属矿床花岗岩锆石U-Pb年龄、Hf同位素特征及其意义

田东钨锡多金属矿床位于粤东莲花山断裂带北东带,矿区出露多个岩性侵入岩。本文以田东钨锡多金属矿区三种花岗岩为研究对象,开展了LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年和Hf同位素特征研究。三种花岗岩岩性分别为中粒花岗岩、粗粒花岗岩、细粒黑云母花岗岩,分别获得锆石206 Pb/238 U加权平均年龄为191.5±0.9 Ma、158.0±1.3 Ma、140.5±0.8 Ma,表明矿区发生了多次岩浆活动事件,分别发生在早侏罗世、晚侏罗世和早白垩世。中粒花岗岩的锆石εHf(t)值介于4.023~9.784,平均值为7.644,在εHf(t)-t图解上,εHf(t)值均在球粒陨石演化线之上,亏损地幔演化线之下,二阶段模式年龄介于611.0~974.9Ma,表明成岩物质主要来源于新生地壳部分熔融,还有幔源物质的加入。粗粒花岗岩的锆石εHf(t)值介于-3.623~-0.120,平均值为-1.680。细粒黑云母花岗岩的锆石εHf(t)值介于-5.358~-1.609,平均值为-3.577。在εHf(t)-t图解上,粗粒花岗岩和细粒黑云母花岗岩的εHf(t)值均落在球粒陨石演化线之下和中元古代地壳演化线之上,二阶段模式年龄分别介于1216.6~1438.5 Ma和1329.9~1422.5 Ma,表明成岩物质主要来源于中元古代古老地壳部分熔融,还有幔源物质的加入。     

青海加吾金矿床花岗斑岩脉锆石U-Pb年龄、Hf同位素特征及其地质意义

加吾金矿床大地构造上位于中央造山系"共和缺口"西缘,位于中央造山带多个块体交接转换的重要部位,其形成与区内印支期中酸性岩浆活动密切相关。对区内与金成矿关系密切的花岗斑岩脉中的锆石进行LA-ICP-MS U-Pb定年以及Lu-Hf同位素测试。测试结果显示,锆石206Pb/238 U加权平均年龄为233.4Ma±4.3Ma(MSWD=2.7),形成时代为中三叠世,与青海西秦岭地区其他印支中晚期中酸性岩浆岩形成时代相近;锆石εHf(t)值介于-12.35~-1.12之间,二阶段Hf模式年龄(tDM2)介于1.3Ga~2.0Ga之间,加吾金矿区内花岗斑岩的源区主要为早-中元古代地壳。相对较高的εHf(t)值的出现说明形成花岗斑岩脉的岩浆有一定幔源组分的加入。与加吾金矿成矿关系密切的花岗斑岩脉形成于陆-陆碰撞过程中挤压向伸展转换的地球动力学环境。由于俯冲陆壳板片断离,幔源岩浆上涌/底侵至下地壳底部,诱发增厚古老下地壳部分熔融产生壳-幔混合岩浆,在印支中期侵入到中下三叠统隆务河组地层中,为金矿的形成提供了热源和深部成矿流体。加吾金矿床成矿时代与花岗斑岩脉的成岩时间一致,即233.4 Ma±4.3 Ma。     

滇西粱河勐养花岗岩的锆石U-Pb年龄、地球化学特征及其地质意义

勐养侵入岩体位于滇西腾冲地块梁河县南勐养镇一带,主要由黑云母二长花岗岩和花岗闪长岩组成,其中发育闪长质包体。闪长岩包体与寄主岩石黑云母二长花岗岩和花岗闪长岩之间呈渐变过渡关系。锆石U-Pb LA-ICP-MS定年表明,黑云母二长花岗岩形成年龄为127.7Ma±0.7Ma,花岗闪长岩形成年龄为115.2Ma±1.1Ma。闪长岩包体形成年龄为122.6Ma±0.8 Ma。表明该花岗岩体的形成时代属于早白垩世。地球化学特征研究表明,闪长岩包体为准铝质、钙碱性系列,具有低SiO2、高MgO、高K20和Mg#的特征。Sm/Nd为0.18～0.20,ΣLREE/ΣHREE=2.91～4.64,Eu存在弱到中等程度的负异常。相对富集U,Th,Rb,Ba等大离子亲石元素(LILE),亏损Tb,Nb,Zr,Hf等高场强元素(HFSE);反映勐养闪长岩包体岩浆成分主要为幔源的特点。根据地球化学特征和微量元素构造判别图解判别结果表明,勐养早白垩世侵入岩形成于碰撞后岩浆弧环境。闪长岩包体的原生岩浆应是地幔橄榄岩部分熔融的产物。黑云二长花岗岩浆可能来源于本区中晚元古代高黎贡山群为代表的地壳物质的部分熔融。花岗闪长岩为幔源岩浆与高黎贡山群古老地壳部分熔融的岩浆混合的产物。腾冲地块早白垩世侵入岩与班公湖—怒江—泸水—瑞丽洋盆的闭合、洋壳向南西俯冲及板块间的碰撞造山作用密切相关。     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians     

Pebbles,Shapes, and Equilibria

The shape of sedimentary particles may carry important information on their history. Current approaches to shape classification (e.g. the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system) rely on shape indices derived from the measurement of the three principal axes of the approximating tri-axial ellipsoid. While these systems have undoubtedly proved to be useful tools, their application inevitably requires tedious and ambiguous measurements, also classification involves the introduction of arbitrarily chosen constants. Here we propose an alternative classification system based on the (integer) number of static equilibria. The latter are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. As opposed to the Zingg system, our method relies on counting rather than measuring. We show that equilibria typically exist on two well-separated (micro and macro) scales. Equilibria can be readily counted by simple hand experiments, i.e. the new classification scheme is practically applicable. Based on statistical results from two different locations we demonstrate that pebbles are well mixed with respect to the new classes, i.e. the new classification is reliable and stable in that sense. We also show that the Zingg statistics can be extracted from the new statistics; however, substantial additional information is also available. From the practical point of view, E-classification is substantially faster than the Zingg method.