Limestone deposits and small-scale production of lime in Nigeria

A general survey of limestone deposits in Nigeria is presented. From these deposits five locations representing the geographical distribution of these deposits were selected and hydrated lime prepared from them. An A-7-6 lateritic soil was stabilized with these locally prepared hydrated limes as well as a commercial lime and the results of unconfined compression, CBR and optimum dry density compared. The results show that the locally prepared limes are not inferior to the commercial limes for soil stabilization and strength characteristics. The results also show that because of the low contents of MgO, the limestones were not sensitive to overheating.     

On the Investigations of Resilient Modulus of Residual Tropical Gravel Lateritic Soils from Senegal (West Africa)

Investigations on the mechanical behavior of compacted gravel lateritic soils have been the subject of several studies. Used as road materials, soils tests were mainly performed using standard tests. Static loads as unconfined compression test (UCT) remain the only engineering approach used. Alternative testing techniques can be chosen as supplementary tests for characterizing pavement materials. These researches were conducted so as to determine the response of these particular and problematic soils in its compacted form with road traffic loads. This paper presents the results of research conducted to investigate the effect of the soil compacity on the resilient modulus of lateritic soils. The influence of the percentage of cement added so as to stabilize each sample at the optimum modified proctor (OPM) State was also determined. Soil big specimens of around 180 mm diameter (with length to diameter aspect ratio of 2:1) were prepared according to the standard procedure described by AASHTO T 307 and then were subjected to repeated load triaxial tests. The models used, analyzed and developed in this paper are mainly the Andrei and the Uzan–Witczak universal model. Test results showed that the specimen compacity has no significant influence on the resilient modulus of the investigated gravel lateritic soils. Soil specimens with variation of the percentage of cement added exhibited the highest resilient modulus values while the specimens with variation of the compacity exhibited the lowest values. The resilient modulus variation seems to be independent of the level of stress.     

Geotechnical characterisation of lateritic soils from south-western Nigeria as materials for cost-effective and energy-efficient building bricks

Lateritic soils which have been described as highly weathered tropical or subtropical residual soils were studied with an attempt to establish its suitability or otherwise as sustainable material in building bricks and housing development that will meet the present challenge of sustaining the environment without costing too much and maintaining a high standard of strength, durability and aesthetics. Index properties of the tested lateritic soils revealed them as mostly well graded, comprising both cohesive (silt and clay) and cohesionless (sand and gravel) soil fraction. The geotechnical analyses on the studied lateritic soil revealed a strong compressive strength with a relatively sound dry density which could guarantee a good durability in resulting bricks made from these soil materials. Further test on the strength and durability of the compressed earth bricks (CEBs) made from these lateritic soils revealed a brick with compressive strength ranging between 6.33 and 15.57 MPa which is considered to be of good strength coupled with its sound durability strength established over a period of more than one year under a complete cycle of weather and seasonal conditions. In conclusion, lateritic soils from the study area were found to be suitable as materials for bricks (CEB) with good compressive and durability strength which qualifies them as sustainable and cost-effective materials for low-cost housing development.     

Characterization of phosphoric acid- and lime-stabilized tropical lateritic clay

The effect of calcium-based stabilizers such as lime on the geotechnical properties of tropical soils has been reported by many researchers. However, the amount of literature available on the micro-structural, molecular, and leaching characteristics of lime and in particular phosphoric acid-stabilized lateritic clays has been limited. This research was carried out in an attempt to identify the time-dependent soil-chemical reactions. In addition, the possible mechanisms that contributed to the stabilization process were discussed in the light of various spectroscopic and microscopic techniques such as X-ray diffractometry (XRD), energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDAX), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) etc. Based on the results it was found that in lime-treated samples, the coating action of free iron oxides on clay particles imposed inhibitive effects on the dissolution of clay alumina. On the other hand, in phosphoric acid-stabilized soil, due to the increase in solubility of metal oxides and also the subsequent release of clay alumina the formation of cementitious compounds were more feasible. From engineering point of view, the phosphoric acid-stabilized lateritic soil showed the highest degree of improvement with an approximately threefold strength increase in comparison with the natural soil over an 8-month curing period.     

Chemical stabilization of sabkha soils at high moisture contents

Vast expanses of arid, saline soils that occur along the Arabian Gulf seaboard and elsewhere possess a very low density and strength that necessitate improvement before any actual construction takesplace. For large-scale constructions, several field improvement techniques have recently been implemented with various degrees of success. In surficial, small-scale applications, chemical stabilization provides a potential technique to improve the inferior properties of these soils, known locally as sabkha. A literature search indicates that chemical stabilization of soils usingasphalt, lime and cement is usually conducted at lower moisture contents than the optimum. Such moisture contents are also much lower than the natural moisture content of sabkha, and if applied to sabkha in the field, this wouldrequire lowering the moisture content before any stabilization commenced; whichwould be neither feasible nor economical.

In this investigation, an eastern Saudi sabkha soil was chemically stabilized at its natural moisture level, which varies from 16% to 22%. In addition to the characterization of the soil and standard compaction tests, cement and lime sabkha mixtures were prepared at five additions and cured for up to 90 days in plastic wrap. Results indicate that cement-stabilized sabkha gained high strength with time and proved to have a potential use in construction.     

改良膨胀土筑堤技术研究

利用改良膨胀土作为高速公路路堤填筑材料是宁淮高速公路需要解决的主要问题。尽管室内试验论证可以用石灰改良膨胀土性质,但现场石灰改良土施工还要解决三大问题：石灰拌和均匀性和石灰含量的检测问题、现场压实方法和压实度控制问题、现场压实改良土的胀缩性和强度是否满足高等级公路路床和路基的要求问题。结合宁淮高速公路先导段施工,设计了试验段进行现场试验。试验结果表明,通过合理的施工工艺、有力的质量控制,改良膨胀土能够满足设计要求。改良土已经不具有膨胀土性质,胀缩性低,CBR强度高,是良好的路堤填筑材料。     

An engineering classification for certain basalt-derived lateritic soils

Engineering classifications which are useful for “temperate” zone soils usually fail to predict the field performance of lateritic soils, because the index tests upon which the classifications are based are not always reproducible for lateritic soils. Undisturbed and disturbed samples of twelve lateritic soils from Hawaii and Puerto Rico, all derived from basalt but representing various stages of weathering were subjected to engineering and mineralogic tests. The specific gravity of the solids increases as the degree of weathering increases; and both strength and void ratio exhibit systematic trends with increased weathering. These results suggest a classification based upon specific gravity and void ratio. Soils with specific gravities less than 3.05 and void ratios greater than 1.25 have low cohesion (less than 20 psi) and low internal friction angles (less than 35°); whereas soils with void ratios between 1.25 and 0.9 have higher cohesions. Still greater values for cohesion and friction angles are noted in soils with void ratios lower than 0.9. Soils with specific gravities greater than 3.05 and void ratios greater than 1.25 have low cohesion but high friction angles. Thus by measuring the void ratio and specific gravity of these soils one can estimate their strength.     

重塑石灰土的强度恢复方法与机制初探

石灰稳定土工程翻修改造后会产生大量的石灰土弃渣,为避免污染环境和节约工程投资,需重新利用破碎的石灰土进行填筑。但石灰土破碎后强度急剧降低,需要添加胶凝材料提升其力学性能。以重塑石灰土为研究对象,通过添加5%石灰或水泥进行再改良,对比分析两种再改良土的强度和压缩性等力学指标,结果表明,石灰再改良土的力学特性优于水泥再改良土。借助粒度分析、电镜扫描、X衍射和热重分析试验手段揭示了石灰再改良土性能优越的内在机制,发现石灰再改良土中的石灰和石灰土团粒能形成很好的胶结;但水泥未能和石灰土团粒形成有效胶结,自身形成了边-面和边-边接触的片状多孔架构。重塑石灰土残存的氢氧化钙是引起水泥再改良土性能劣于石灰再改良土的主要诱因。     

Effects of soil pulverization quality on lime stabilization of an expansive clay

Lime stabilization is an effective way of stabilizing expansive clays, which cause significant environmental problems both as earth and foundation materials. There are considerable environmental benefits in using the in situ lime-stabilized expansive soils in the construction of road pavements, fill or foundations instead of importing valuable granular materials. However, due to high plastic nature of these clays, achieving appropriate pulverization in field applications is a difficult task. This paper presents the results of a laboratory investigation to determine the effects of soil pulverization quality on lime stabilization of a local expansive clay. Effect of mellowing the soil–lime mixtures for 24 h was also studied to find out whether this would compensate for poor pulverization. The clay studied had swelling pressures varying between 300 and 500 kN/m² and free swell potential as high as 19%. In this study, 3, 6 and 9% lime by dry weight were used for lime-stabilized samples. Unconfined compression strength, failure strain and Secant Elasticity Modulus values were measured through unconfined compression strength testing. The results of the study showed that lime stabilization improved plasticity, workability, compressive strength, elastic moduli and swelling and compressibility behavior of the expansive clay. While mellowing did not have a definite effect on the measured strength and moduli values, soil pulverization quality considerably affected the unconfined compression strength and Secant Elasticity Modulus values. The higher the percentage passing No. 4 sieve, the higher the effectiveness of lime treatment. Based on the data obtained in this study, two original equations were derived to assign Secant Elasticity Modulus based on unconfined compression strength, for different soil pulverization qualities. Microfabric investigations conducted by Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope and Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry exposed the effect of lime stabilization on fabric, porosity and pore size distributions. The results of the study clearly demonstrated that if enough time and effort were not given to soil pulverization process in lime stabilization works in field applications, lower performance and therefore increased environmental problems should be expected.     

石灰改良弱膨胀土击实特性试验研究

本文以拟建安康机场弱膨胀土为例,用石灰作为改良剂,对这种石灰改良膨胀土开展了一系列击实试验研究。试验样品来自于安康拟建机场跑道区和挖方区的膨胀土,采用CSK-V1型多功能电动击实仪进行重型击实试验。试验结果表明,石灰掺量、含水量、余土高度、焖料时间对干密度有一定的影响,其规律为:石灰掺量越高,最优含水量越大,最大干密度越小;在最优含水量附近,随着石灰掺量的增加,含水量对干密度的影响减小;在击实功、掺灰量、含水量一定时,余土高度越大,干密度越小;最大干密度随着焖料时间以一定的趋势减小,焖料时间48h以后变化不大;同一种石灰掺量时干密度的主要影响因素顺序是:含水量、焖料时间、余土高度。最后,还通过扫描电镜试验,从微观角度对石灰改良土和击实试验结果进行了描述与分析。     

Utilization of lime,slag and fly ash for improvement of a colluvial soil in New South Wales,Australia

In Australia, colluvial soils form large terrains which are often subjected to considerable erosion and mass movement. This study presents a laboratory evaluation of the improvement effected by hydrated lime, milled blast furnace slag and fly ash on a fine grained (erosive) colluvial soil in New South Wales, Australia. Geotechnical tests were conducted to determine the compaction and consolidation characteristics and the compressive and shear strength properties of the blended and natural soil specimens. The effect of these additives on the Atterberg limits and pH levels is also investigated. As large amounts of fly ash and steel slag are produced in New South Wales, it is economically attractive to utilize these industrial by-products for ground improvement rather than employing conventional methods such as lime treatment. This study demonstrates that for the colluvial soil tested, milled slag is the most effective in terms of improving the internal friction angle of the treated soil, while lime is the most suitable for achieving the optimum compressive strength. Non-pozzolanic fly ash is found to be inappropriate as a soil improving agent. The cost of ground treatment using the various additives is also estimated and compared.     

Effect of the combination of lime and natural pozzolana on the compaction and strength of soft clayey soils: a preliminary study

Soft soil stabilization has been practised for quite some time by mixing additives, such as cement, lime and fly ash to the soil to increase its strength. However, there is a lack of investigations on the use of natural pozzolana alone or combined with lime for ground improvement applications. An experimental programme was undertaken to study the effect of using lime, natural pozzolana or a combination of both on the geotechnical characteristics of soft soils. Lime or natural pozzolana was added to soft soils at ranges of 0?C10% and 0?C20%, respectively. In addition, combinations of lime?Cnatural pozzolana were added to soft soils at the same ranges. Test specimens were subjected to compaction tests, shear tests and unconfined compression tests. Specimens were cured for 1, 7, 28 and 90?days, after which they were tested for unconfined compression tests. Based on the favourable results obtained, it can be concluded that the soft soils can be successfully stabilized by the combined action of lime and natural pozzolana. Since natural pozzolana is much cheaper than lime, the addition of natural pozzolana in lime?Csoil mix may particularly become attractive and can result in cost reduction of construction.     

掺灰膨胀土表面吸附试验及吸水性验证

利用水蒸气吸附仪对石灰改性膨胀土进行水蒸气吸附试验,得出随着掺灰量的变化,膨胀土的吸水性先减小后增大,且在掺灰量为6%处取得最小值。为了研究引起膨胀土吸水性变化的主要原因,再对改性膨胀土进行氮气吸附试验,从而分析掺灰膨胀土孔隙结构的变化。研究发现,随着掺灰量的增加,BET微孔比表面积呈折线形变化,且在掺灰量为6%时取得最小值;中孔的累积容积随着掺灰量的增大而减小;随着掺灰量的增加,中孔孔径先增大后减小,且在掺灰量为6%处取得最大值。膨胀土的吸水性与中孔孔径的变化成负相关,且膨胀土的最佳掺灰量为6%。     

Kerman Clay Improvement by Lime and Bentonite to Be Used as Materials of Landfill Liner

Kerman province, located in the south eastern Iran, is dominated with clays which can be used in different projects. The liner system within a landfill is constructed to control leachate migration and can be constructed by low permeable natural soils or plastic lining materials, environmentally however, natural materials is preferred that usually need to be amended in order to meet requirements recommended by environmental agencies. This research examines the possibility of using the Kerman collapsible clay as a liner layer material. A set of laboratory test was conducted on pure soil samples and additive treated samples. The moderate collapse potential of the used soil is decreased with wet compaction and under the effect of additive-soil reactions. Laboratory investigations showed that lime and bentonite treatment improved the hydraulic conductivity. The results revealed hydraulic conductivities on the order of 10^?8 m/s. The obtained values met the 1.0E?07 m/s criterion required by Iranian standards. Unconfined compression tests were also performed on pure soil and additive amended samples. The unconfined compression strength values demonstrated gradual decreases with the addition of bentonite and considerable increases with adding lime such that with adding 1% lime the unconfined compression strength increased by 75%. This study verified that the Kerman collapsing clay can be used as a liner material using lime and bentonite as additives.     

Use of Natural Pozzolana and Lime for Stabilization of Cohesive Soils

The present study investigates the use of natural pozzolana combined with lime for ground improvement applications. Laboratory tests were undertaken to study the effect of natural pozzolana, lime or a combination of both on the physical and the mechanical characteristics of cohesive soils. Natural pozzolana, lime and natural pozzolana-lime were added to two cohesive soils at ranges of 0–20 and 0–8%, respectively. Consistency, compaction, undrained traxial shear and unconfined compressive strength tests were performed on untreated and treated soil samples to assess the physical and mechanical characteristics of the soil. Treated samples were cured for 1, 7, 28 and 90 days. The results show that the cohesive soils can be successfully stabilized by combining natural pozzolana and lime.     

Strength and structure of laterites and lateritic soils

Ten soils from Puerto Rico representing various states of weathering were subjected to engineering index tests, strength and density measurement, mineralogic analyses, and scanning electron microscopy.Engineering classification systems used for temperate soils tend to underestimate the engineering behavior of these undisturbed lateritic soils and in the undisturbed state the soils exhibit low densities and high strengths.The engineering properties of the undisturbed soils show systematic trends in relation to the degree of weathering and the parent rock. For a given rock, the void ratio is decreased and cohesion increased as weathering proceeds. This is the result of increasing crystallization and cementation by the sesquioxides.The specific gravity of the solid particles is a promising index property to characterize these lateritic soils insofar as it reflects iron oxide content. The decrease in void ratio and increase in cohesion with increasing specific gravity suggests a model for the engineering classification of tropical soils.     

粉煤灰与生石灰加固软土的室内试验研究

粉煤灰是一种工业废弃物,与生石灰一样均可用来加固软土地基。笔者进行了粉煤灰与生石灰加固土的室内配方试验,分别将水泥或生石灰与粉煤灰按照不同的比例干拌均匀后,再与不同含水量的软土人工拌和均匀,测定了不同龄期的无侧限抗压强度;分析了石灰加固土强度与生石灰掺入比和龄期的关系及其压缩系数、压缩模量等的变化。并进一步分析了粉煤灰的加固机理,旨在为其进一步的研究和工程应用提供参考。     

Soil–Water Characteristic Curves Obtained for a Colluvial and Lateritic Soil Profile Considering the Macro and Micro Porosity

This study aims to determine and to model the relationship of matric suction versus water content, known as soil?Cwater characteristic curve (SWCC), for a tropical soil profile at the southeastern Brazil. This soil profile consists of a colluvial, lateritic silty clay, with thickness of about 6.5?m. The filter paper and pressure plate techniques were used to determine the SWCC. Specimens were trimmed from the undisturbed soil samples collected along soil profile depth and submitted to drying paths. Impregnated thin-layer plates and a petrographic microscope were used to examine the structure and mineralogical composition of the soil samples. Mercury intrusion porosimetry tests were performed on some soil samples to obtain the frequency histogram of the pores. SWCC with bimodal pore-size distribution were obtained by the filter paper technique and SWCC with unimodal pore-size distribution were obtained by the pressure plate technique. The SWCC showed values of air-entry ranging from 1 to 3?kPa, depending on the technique used, resembling soils with macroporosity, as the lateritic soils. Combining both techniques, the SWCC could be fitted by a model that takes into consideration soils with macro and microporosity.     

Use of lateritic soils for road construction in North Dahomey

Due to the deterioration of the Parakou—Malanville highway, the preparation of a rehabilitation program was necessary. The related geotechnical exploration provided an excellent opportunity to study the properties of the encountered lateritic soils. The mineralogical analysis proved that the lateritic overburden originates from the local rocks. However, the analyses also indicated that the soils can only be identified as lateritic by virtue of their hematite content. The soils were classified according to the AASHO-system and their geotechnical properties were thoroughly investigated. The results revealed that the overwhelming majority of the available soils was unsuitable for highway construction due to their high plasticity. In order to improve them, cement stabilization was suggested. The laboratory tests resulted in an economically feasible solution.     

城市河道淤泥特性及改良试验初探

以南京内秦淮河疏浚淤泥为例,通过土工试验、XRD和X射线荧光光谱试验等方法,研究了城市河道淤泥的物理性质、矿物成分、化学成分等特性。试验结果显示:秦淮河淤泥粘粒含量低、有机质含量极高,矿物成分主要有石英和少量粘土矿物等。为了实现淤泥的资源化处理,运用水泥、石灰无机固化材料对淤泥进行固化改良试验及改性土无侧限抗压强度试验,结果表明随着水泥掺量增加,水泥固化土由塑性破坏向脆性破坏过渡,破坏应变在1.8%~2.2%,而石灰固化土均表现为脆性破坏,且破坏应变小于水泥土,为1%左右。水泥固化土28d强度为670kPa,固化效果优于石灰,但略低于处理一般软土的固化土强度。研究结果对处置城市河道淤泥有一定参考价值。