地外有机化合物

球粒陨石中的有机化合物起源于星际介质,是构成太阳星云的初始组分,并与其他物质一起吸积形成小行星和行星。在小行星内,有机质经历了不同程度的水蚀变和热变质作用。球粒陨石中的有机化合物尽管是非生命成因,但组成极为复杂,主要是类似于干酪根的大分子物质,以及少量可溶性有机物。大部分可溶有机分子也发现于地球生物圈,但前者可具有完全不同的H、C、N等同位素组成,这也是它们来源于地球之外的重要证据。星云中宇宙线和紫外线（UV）的辐射、小行星的热变质和水蚀变,是地外有机质演化的主要过程。球粒陨石中的有机质是地球生命起源的物质基础,是生命起源不可或缺的重要环节。同样重要的是,大量的火星探测表明,火星历史上有过满足生命存在的基本条件,而在火星陨石中还发现了一些生物活动相关的线索。未来很可能首先在火星上发现地外生命存在的证据。     

欧洲航天局批准火星钻探计划

2005年12月，由欧洲17国家组成的欧洲航天局成员囤的局长们云集德国柏林，讨论并批准一项旨在对火星实施钻探的（遥控）勘探活动计划，其主要目的就是通过钻探取样研究火星表面的物质以便对过去及现在是否存在着生命提供证据。     

太阳系生命信息探测

寻找地外生命是人类开展太阳系探测的根本出发点。火星是太阳系中最可能存在生命的天体之一。尽管海盗号开展的生物科学实验没有获得存在生命的确凿证据,但是近二十年的探测利用高分辨成像、光谱、质谱、雷达、中子分析等多方面的探测手段,获得了河流侵蚀地貌、古湖泊河流沉积物、水成矿物、极地冰盖、大气中水蒸气组分等一系列反映火星上有水的证据。这些发现暗示了火星过去或现在存在适宜生命繁衍的环境特征。大气甲烷、火星样品中有机物是下一步火星生命探测的重点。木星和土星的天然卫星,包括木卫二、土卫二和土卫六等在地外生命的研究中引起极大关注。木卫二上的盐水海洋环境被认为可能孕育生命,海洋中可能存在类似地球上的水热地质作用。土卫二南极存在细粒冰晶的喷射,且喷射物含有对于生命非常关键的液态水、氨气和其他碳氢化合物等。碳质球粒陨石存在大量可溶性有机物,其中包括多种构成蛋白质的氨基酸。星尘号和深度撞击任务的探测结果证实彗星所代表原始物质中含有大量的有机化合物,部分类型的氨基酸在碳质陨石和星际尘埃IDP颗粒相同,进一步支持了彗星与地球生命的起源之间存在联系。文中分析了太阳系生命探测中亟须解决的关键问题,包括系统建立地外生物标志化合物、发展适合太阳系探测的有机物分析技术、开展地球极端生命研究。最后呼吁我国在未来火星等天体探测任务中能增加有机物探测的相关载荷,及时介入太阳系生命探测,开拓深空领域。     

南极GRV9927陨石：一种可能的火星陨石

自 1 969年日本冰川学家首次发现南极无球粒陨石以来 ,南极冰原为人类提供了无与伦比的地外物质 ,包括大多数月球陨石及近半数的火星陨石。据ＭｃＳｗｅｅｎ报道[1] ,已有 1 3个陨石确定为火星陨石 ,其中包括ＡＬＨＡ770 0 5和ＡＬＨ 840 0 1陨石。 1 996年美国航空航天局ＭｃＫａｙ等宣布 ,他们在ＡＬＨ840 0 1火星陨石中发现了生命活动的遗迹。这一发现引起了各国科学家的极大兴趣 ,并引发了一场激烈的争论。因此 ,火星陨石的研究受到了人们广泛的关注。作者研究的ＧＲＶ992 7陨石样品是 1 999年我国南极科学考察队中国科学院地质研究所刘…     

重大研究成果评述:火星曾有过生命的新发现

为进一步促进学术交流,提升学会作为学术发布和交流平台的功能,加速分享相关科研成果并激励广大青年地学工作者投身科研创新事业,从本期起,本刊将专门开辟"亮点评述"栏目,推介在近期(2~3月左右)中国主要高校院所相关专业最新科研成果,特别是在国际专业期刊上发表的论文。我们并将适时择其中重要成果请相关专家点评。作为首发栏目,我们特别高兴能在本期转载,并向广大读者推荐本会名誉理事长和本刊主编欧阳自远先生关于火星陨石研究最新亮点的述评:火星可能存在过生命!同时也热烈欢迎广大同行和会员积极提供相关信息。     

早寒武纪小壳化石的地球化学研究

寒武纪是生命的开端，化石则是生命开始的直接证据，因寒武纪地层对揭示生命的成因具有重大意义，多年来寒武纪地层是众多学科领域关注的热点。对寒武纪的研究，在古生物学方面，已经取得了很好的进展；但是对于这些生物所赖以生存的环境的研究还仅停留在定性阶段，仅限于利用环境指标反应环境的变化。而且，经过成岩作用过程，沉积岩可能已经改变了与海洋所达成的化学平衡。Longinelli等（1973）提出了利用沉积磷酸盐与水的氧同位素平衡的方法计算沉积阶段的古水温，这一温度计为利用小壳化石壳同位素组成计算古水温提供可能。但是，这种可能变成现实的前提条件是：小壳化石的磷酸盐壳质是原生的。小壳化石在存在于寒武纪底部白云岩层，在华南分布广泛。采样点位于云南省会泽县大海乡乡村公路旁。化石形体上呈圆锥型，具有坚硬的磷酸钙壳体，体腔常被石英充填。化石含量高的地层可富集成矿，例如贵州织金磷矿属于这种矿床类型。经过磷酸的浸泡，化石壳饰已被破坏，扫描电镜下呈现不规则的溶蚀坑。偏光镜下化石的横截面上可以看到石英填充物晶形完好。对采集样品进行了元素及同位素地球化学分析，分析结果表明，小壳化石的磷酸盐部分比碳酸盐部分含有更高的REE；Mn/Sr 按 SSF2＜FB＜SSF1＜DH－23 递增，体现了小壳化石中的磷酸盐部分后期成岩作用的影响最小，其可能能够反应古海水特征。小壳化石与颗粒磷的磷酸根氧同位素δ18Ophos在误差范围内是一致的，根据公式 Longinelli 等（1973）计算出来的古海洋温度为28.4～29.4℃。化石中的碳酸盐部分与基质白云岩在碳同位素δ13Ccarb上基本一致。另外，本项研究首次采用硅同位素方法探讨小壳化石中的石英的来源，结果表明化石与基质石英的Si同位素相当［（－0.6＋0.1）‰］，体现了热液特征，与寒武纪底部硅质岩硅同位素特征 0.4‰～1.4‰ 完全不同。化石的磷酸盐成分（SSF）与颗粒状磷矿（FB）成分具有较低的 Mn/Sr比值（0.12，0.23），壳体的碳酸盐成分的 Mn/Sr比值为8.5，基质白云岩 Mn/Sr比值高达200。小壳化石与颗粒状磷矿的磷酸盐氧同位素相近［（16.8＋0.2）‰］，高于相近磷块岩地层（13.3‰～15.9‰）。成岩作用对磷酸盐氧同位素的影响是使氧同位素降低，从这点意义上说小壳化石受成岩作用或后期矿化作用的影响更小。这些分析数据表明，小壳化石中壳体的磷酸盐成分是原生成分。经酸分离的小壳化石表面的溶蚀坑表明，磷酸盐并不是化石壳体的唯一成分，碳酸盐也可能是壳体的组成成分。碳同位素分析表明，壳质中碳酸盐部分与基质白云岩具有相近的δ13C，而且壳体中碳酸盐成分的 Mn/Sr 比值也不高。所以，碳酸盐部分也可能是原生的。根据公式 Longinelli 等（1973）计算出来的古海洋温度为 28.4～29.4℃，Ling等（2004）发表了关于前寒武纪古海水温度的数据，建议 32～34℃ 为前寒武纪古海水温度的上限，但是他所研究分析的磷块岩受成岩作用的影响很大，所以计算的温度较高。从某种意义上说，越小的计算值越接近真正的古海水温度。华南早寒武纪有没有热液这一问题对于发育于早寒武世黑色页岩系中的 Ni－Mo－PGE 多金属硫化物矿床的成因问题尤其重要。热液与沉积成矿观点一直在争论着，从某种意义上说，笔者的Si同位素结果支持了热液成因观点。     

太阳星云凝集过程的岩石学模式：（Ⅱ）非球陨石,C1陨石及类C1陨石的凝…

综述了非球陨石（铁陨石、石铁陨石和无球粒陨石）在成分结构方面的非分异成因证据，推断其成因是：星云盘中心层中的星云发生气－液凝聚作用形成的熔滴，在较高温度下彼此合并形成了较大熔体，熔体固化后形成该类陨石母体。根据Ｃ１陨石不含球粒和其它成分特征。推断它们是星云只发生气－固凝集作用的产物。     

火星研究的近期进展(英文)

火星研究的历史可分为望远镜探测阶段和宇宙飞船探测阶段。本文简短回顾了Ｍａｒｉｎｅｒ４宇宙飞船（１９６５）,Ｍａｒｉｎｅｒ６和７（１９６９）,Ｍａｒｉｎｅｒ９（１９７１）和Ｖｉｋｉｎｇ１和２（１９７６）等的探测成果。火星探路者飞船是海盗２号以后的第一个火星着陆器,它于１９９６年下半年发射升空,于１９９７年７月１４日在火星表面着陆。通过火星探路者飞船对火星所做的分析,可以得出的结论是：（１）在火星的历史中已存在着水,因此,火星在过去曾是富水的、温暖的和潮湿的;（２）火星表面有许多火山口及火山,但没有大陆;（３）在火星上既有镁铁质岩石,也有硅质岩石;（４）火星的气候曾一度是温和的,有厚厚的大气圈及流水,这在过去有可能是一种能维持生命的环境。     

玻璃陨石的成因争论及可能的彗星撞击模型

玻璃陨石的成因争论及可能的彗星撞击模型李春来（中国科学院地球化学研究所，贵阳５５０００２）关键词玻璃陨石成因彗星撞击事件玻璃陨石是一种棕黑色或浅绿色的天然玻璃，一般为厘米级大小的块状，表面多具空气动力学熔蚀刻痕。长期的研究证明，玻璃陨石在化学和结构特...     

天然富勒烯及其在P-T界线地层的研究进展

富勒烯（Fullerene）为除金刚石和石墨外碳元素的第三种同素异形体，自Kroto等1985年发现以来，对富勒烯的研究一直是世界性的热点话题，并在多个方面取得重要进展。它具有稳定的封闭笼状结构，被认为在星际空间广泛存在。富勒烯的形成条件特殊，普通的地球环境和地质过程不利于富勒烯的生成。1992年天然富勒烯在俄罗斯前寒武纪地层桑加岩（Shungite）中被发现，引起了人们对天然富勒烯研究的兴趣。随着富勒烯在陨石和撞击构造中的发现，人们更加关注事件地层中富勒烯存在的可能性以及它们的可能来源。二叠纪—三叠纪（P-T）之交发生了地质历史上规模最大的生物灭绝事件，因此，学者十分关注P-T界线地层中是否能检测到天然富勒烯的的存在。文章回顾了富勒烯在陨石、撞击构造、K-T界线地层和P T界线地层的研究进展，并重点对P-T界线富勒烯的存在问题进行讨论，指出从样品采集到样品测试，每一个环节都可能影响富勒烯的检出。P-T界线地层富勒烯可能源于陨石撞击、天然大火等极端地质事件，而包裹在富勒烯碳笼的稀有气体的同位素组成提供了进一步区分的重要证据。事件地层中普遍存在富勒烯，表明天然富勒烯可以作为地层中发生过重大灾变事件的重要的地球化学指标，而具有异常稀有气体同位素组成的富勒烯则是地外撞击事件的最直接证据。     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Antarctic Martian meteorites, carbonaceous chondrites, and polar ice

Recent analyses of the carbonate globules present in the Martian meteorite ALH84001 have detected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at the ppm level (McKay et al., 1996). The distribution of PAHs observed in ALH84001 was interpreted as being inconsistent with a terrestrial origin and were claimed to be indigenous to the meteorite, perhaps derived from an ancient martian biota. We have examined PAHs in the Antarctic shergottite EETA79001, which is also considered to be from Mars, as well as several Antarctic carbonaceous chondrites. We have found that many of the same PAHs detected in the ALH84001 carbonate globules are present in Antarctic carbonaceous chondrites and in both the matrix and carbonate (druse) component of EETA79001. We also investigated PAHs in polar ice and found that carbonate is an effective scavenger of PAHs in ice meltwater. Moreover, the distribution of PAHs in the carbonate extract of Antarctic Allan Hills ice is remarkably similar to that found in both EETA79001 and ALH84001. The reported presence of L-amino acids of apparent terrestrial origin in the EETA79001 druse material (McDonald and Bada, 1995) suggests that this meteorite is contaminated with terrestrial organics probably derived from Antarctic ice meltwater that had percolated through the meteorite. Our data suggests that the PAHs observed in both ALH84001 and EETA79001 are derived from either the exogenous delivery of organics to Mars or extraterrestrial and terrestrial PAHs present in the ice meltwater or, more likely, from a mixture of these sources. It would appear that PAHs are not useful biomarkers in the search for extinct or extant life on Mars.     

Kinetic model of carbonate dissolution in Martian meteorite ALH84001

The magnetites and sulfides located in the rims of carbonate globules in the Martian meteorite ALH84001 have been claimed as evidence of past life on Mars. Here, we consider the possibility that the rims were formed by dissolution and reprecipitation of the primary carbonate by the action of water. To estimate the rate of these solution-precipitation reactions, a kinetic model of magnesite-siderite carbonate dissolution was applied and used to examine the physicochemical conditions under which these rims might have formed. The results indicate that the formation of the rims could have taken place in < 50 yr of exposure to small amounts of aqueous fluids at ambient temperatures. Plausible conditions pertaining to reactions under a hypothetical ancient Martian atmosphere (1 bar CO₂), the modern Martian atmosphere (8 mbar CO₂), and the present terrestrial atmosphere (0.35 mbar CO₂) were explored to constrain the site of the process. The results indicated that such reactions likely occurred under the latter two conditions. The possibility of Antarctic weathering must be entertained, which, if correct, would imply that the plausibly biogenic minerals (single-domain magnetite of characteristic morphology and sulfide) reported from the rims may be the products of terrestrial microbial activity. This model is discussed in terms of the available isotope data and found to be compatible with the formation of ALH84001 rims. Particularly, anticorrelated variations of radiocarbon with δ¹³C indicate that carbonate in ALH84001 was affected by solution-precipitation reactions immediately after its initial fall (∼13,000 yr ago) and then again during its recent exposure prior to collection.     

Ion microprobe measurements of O/O ratios of phosphate minerals in the Martian meteorites ALH84001 and Los Angeles

Oxygen isotope ratios of merrillite and chlorapatite in the Martian meteorites ALH84001 and Los Angeles have been measured by ion microprobe in multicollector mode. δ¹⁸O values of phosphate minerals measured in situ range from ∼3 to 6‰, and are similar to Martian meteorite whole-rock values, as well as the δ¹⁸O of igneous phosphate on Earth. These results suggest that the primary, abiotic, igneous phosphate reservoir on Mars is similar in oxygen isotopic composition to the basaltic phosphate reservoir on Earth. This is an important first step in the characterization of Martian phosphate reservoirs for the use of δ¹⁸O of phosphate minerals as a biomarker for life on Mars. Cumulative textural, major-element, and isotopic evidence presented here suggest a primary, igneous origin for the phosphates in Los Angeles and ALH84001; textural and chemical evidence suggests that phosphates in ALH84001 were subsequently shock-melted in a later event.     

The role of vaterite and aragonite in the formation of pseudo-biogenic carbonate structures: implications for Martian exobiology.

A simple synthesis of various forms of calcium carbonate with spherical and 'floral' morphologies is reported. Vaterite formation occurs at approximately 25 degrees C, aragonite at approximately 70 degrees C and calcite at about approximately 80 degrees C. These are produced when CO2 is reacted with an aqueous solution of calcium chloride in the presence of ammonia. These conditions may have existed at the surface of Mars in the past, leading us to conclude that such mineral formations may be common there. Although the initial phases are modified over time with changing temperature and pressure conditions, they still influence the final morphology of the carbonates observed. A comparison of these structures with those found in the Martian meteorite ALH84001 suggests, but does not confirm, a non-biogenic origin for the ALH84001 carbonates.     

Petrography and bulk chemistry of Martian orthopyroxenite ALH84001: implications for the origin of secondary carbonates

New petrologic and bulk geochemical data for the SNC-related (Martian) meteorite ALH84001 suggest a relatively simple igneous history overprinted by complex shock and hydrothermal processes. ALH84001 is an igneous orthopyroxene cumulate containing penetrative shock deformation textures and a few percent secondary extraterrestrial carbonates. Rare earth element (REE) patterns for several splits of the meteorite reveal substantial heterogeneity in REE abundances and significant fractionation of the REEs between crushed and uncrushed domains within the meteorite. Complex zoning in carbonates indicates nonequilibrium processes were involved in their formation, suggesting that CO2-rich fluids of variable composition infiltrated the rock while on Mars. We interpret petrographic textures to be consistent with an inorganic origin for the carbonate involving dissolution-replacement reactions between CO2-charged fluids and feldspathic glass in the meteorite. Carbonate formation clearly postdated processes that last redistributed the REE in the meteorite.     

An Evaporation Model for Formation of Carbonates in the ALH84001 Martian Meteorite

Small, discoid globules and networks of magnesium-iron-calcium carbonates occur within impact-produced fracture zones in the ALH84001 Martian meteorite. Because these carbonates contain or are associated with the hydrocarbons, single-domain magnetite and iron-sulfide grains, and purported microfossils that collectively have been cited as evidence for ancient Martian life, it is critically important to understand their formation. Previous hypotheses for the origin of the carbonates involve either alteration of the rock by hydrothermal fluids at relatively low temperatures, or formation from a CO₂-rich vapor at high temperatures. This paper explores an alternative mechanism–direct precipitation from a ponded evaporating brine infiltrating into fractures in the floor of an impact crater. Such a model can be reconciled with the observed carbonate compositional zoning and extreme stable-isotopic fractionations. If the carbonates formed in this manner, this removes a possible obstacle to the proposed existence of microbial remains in ALH84001; however, the cited evidence for life can be better explained by inorganic processes expected from brines in an evaporating alkaline lake, with an overprint of shock metamorphism and subsequent contamination by organic matter after falling to Earth.     

Ar-Ar chronology of the Martian meteorite ALH84001: evidence for the timing of the early bombardment of Mars

ALH84001, a cataclastic cumulate orthopyroxenite meteorite from Mars, has been dated by Ar-Ar stepped heating and laser probe methods. Both methods give ages close to 3,900 Ma. The age calculated is dependent on assumptions made about 39Ar recoil effects and on whether significant quantities of 40Ar from the Martian atmosphere are trapped in the meteorite. If, as suggested by xenon and nitrogen isotope studies, Martian atmospheric argon is present, then it must reside predominantly in the K-rich phase maskelynite. Independently determined 129Xe abundances in the maskelynite can be used to place limits on the concentration of the atmospheric 40Ar. These indicate a reduction of around 80 Ma to ages calculated on the assumption that no Martian atmosphere is present. After this correction, the nominal ages obtained are: 3940 +/- 50, 3870 +/- 80, and 3970 +/- 100 Ma. by stepped heating, and 3900 +/- 90 Ma by laser probe (1 sigma statistical errors), giving a weighted mean value of 3,920 Ma. Ambiguities in the interpretation of 39Ar recoil effects and in the contribution of Martian atmospheric 40Ar lead to uncertainties in the Ar-Ar age which are difficult to quantify, but we suggest that the true value lies somewhere between 4,050 and 3,800 Ma. This age probably dates a period of annealing of the meteorite subsequent to the shock event which gave it its cataclastic texture. The experiments provide the first evidence of an event occurring on Mars coincident with the time of the late heavy bombardment of the Moon and may reflect a similar period of bombardment in the Southern Highlands of Mars. Whether the age determined bears any relationship to the time of carbonate deposition in ALH84001 is not known. Such a link depends on whether the temperature associated with the metasomatic activity was sufficient to cause argon loss from the maskelynite and/or whether the metasomatism and metamorphism were linked in time through a common heat source.     

Microscale carbon isotope variability in ALH84001 carbonates and a discussion of possible formation environments

The carbonates in martian meteorite ALH84001 preserve a record of aqueous processes on Mars at 3.9 Ga, and have been suggested to contain signatures of ancient martian life. The conditions of the carbonate formation environment are critical for understanding possible evidence for life on Mars, the history of water on Mars, and the evolution of the martian atmosphere. Despite numerous studies of petrographic relationships, microscale oxygen isotope compositions, microscale chemical compositions, and other minerals associated with the carbonates, formation models remain relatively unconstrained. Microscale carbon isotope analyses of ALH84001 carbonates reveal variable δ¹³C values ranging from +27 to +64‰. The isotopic compositions are correlated with chemical composition and extent of crystallization such that the Mg-poor, early-formed carbonates are relatively ¹³C depleted and the Mg-rich, later forming carbonates, are ¹³C enriched. These data are inconsistent with many of the previously proposed environments for carbonate formation, and a new set of hypotheses are proposed. Specifically, two new models that account for the data involve low temperature (<100°C) aqueous processes: (1) the carbonates formed during mixing of two fluids derived from separate chemical and isotopic reservoirs; or (2) the carbonates formed from high pH fluids that are exposed to a CO₂-rich atmosphere and precipitate carbonate, similar to high pH springs on Earth.     

Elongated prismatic magnetite crystals in ALH84001 carbonate globules: potential Martian magnetofossils.

Using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), we have analyzed magnetite (Fe3O4) crystals acid-extracted from carbonate globules in Martian meteorite ALH84001. We studied 594 magnetites from ALH84001 and grouped them into three populations on the basis of morphology: 389 were irregularly shaped, 164 were elongated prisms, and 41 were whisker-like. As a possible terrestrial analog for the ALH84001 elongated prisms, we compared these magnetites with those produced by the terrestrial magnetotactic bacteria strain MV-1. By TEM again, we examined 206 magnetites recovered from strain MV-1 cells. Natural (Darwinian) selection in terrestrial magnetotactic bacteria appears to have resulted in the formation of intracellular magnetite crystals having the physical and chemical properties that optimize their magnetic moment. In this study, we describe six properties of magnetite produced by biologically controlled mechanisms (e.g., magnetotactic bacteria), properties that, collectively, are not observed in any known population of inorganic magnetites. These criteria can be used to distinguish one of the modes of origin for magnetites from samples with complex or unknown histories. Of the ALH84001 magnetites that we have examined, the elongated prismatic magnetite particles (similar to 27% of the total) are indistinguishable from the MV-1 magnetites in five of these six characteristics observed for biogenically controlled mineralization of magnetite crystals.     

Origins of magnetite nanocrystals in Martian meteorite ALH84001

The Martian meteorite ALH84001 preserves evidence of interaction with aqueous fluids while on Mars in the form of microscopic carbonate disks. These carbonate disks are believed to have precipitated 3.9 Ga ago at beginning of the Noachian epoch on Mars during which both the oldest extant Martian surfaces were formed, and perhaps the earliest global oceans. Intimately associated within and throughout these carbonate disks are nanocrystal magnetites (Fe₃O₄) with unusual chemical and physical properties, whose origins have become the source of considerable debate. One group of hypotheses argues that these magnetites are the product of partial thermal decomposition of the host carbonate. Alternatively, the origins of magnetite and carbonate may be unrelated; that is, from the perspective of the carbonate the magnetite is allochthonous. For example, the magnetites might have already been present in the aqueous fluids from which the carbonates were believed to have been deposited. We have sought to resolve between these hypotheses through the detailed characterization of the compositional and structural relationships of the carbonate disks and associated magnetites with the orthopyroxene matrix in which they are embedded. Extensive use of focused ion beam milling techniques has been utilized for sample preparation. We then compared our observations with those from experimental thermal decomposition studies of sideritic carbonates under a range of plausible geological heating scenarios. We conclude that the vast majority of the nanocrystal magnetites present in the carbonate disks could not have formed by any of the currently proposed thermal decomposition scenarios. Instead, we find there is considerable evidence in support of an alternative allochthonous origin for the magnetite unrelated to any shock or thermal processing of the carbonates.