涡动相关仪观测数据的处理与质量评价研究

涡动相关仪能够较准确地直接测量地表—大气间的湍流交换,在世界范围内得到了广泛的应用。但它的使用是有条件限制的,如果不进行必要的修正,得到的通量就可能有较大的误差。以密云观测站一年的涡动相关仪观测数据为例进行分析。结果表明：野点值剔除、坐标旋转以及超声温度订正对地表感热、潜热等通量的测量结果影响均在±1%之内,但坐标旋转对动量通量影响较大,必须对潜热和CO2通量进行空气密度效应订正;湍流谱在惯性副区基本满足-2/3次方定律,协谱基本满足-4/3次方定律。经过对观测数据的筛选和处理后,约75%的观测数据质量较好,2%的数据需要剔除。通量贡献源区分析表明,全天和白天均有超过70%的通量源区落在感兴趣区域内,超过90%的通量贡献最大点落在感兴趣区域内。     

基于涡度相关技术估算植被/大气间净CO2交换量中的不确定性

近年来，涡度相关技术的进步使陆地生态系统CO2通量的长期和连续观测成为可能。目前，涡度相关技术是全球通量观测网络（FLUXNET）测定植被/大气间CO2通量的主要技术手段，但绝大部分CO2通量观测站点都处于非典型的理想条件下，不能完全满足涡度相关技术的基本假设条件，从而导致基于涡度相关技术估算植被/大气间净生态系统CO2交换量的不确定性。系统介绍了涡度相关技术的基本假设，基本理论公式和误差的类型与特征等理论问题，重点阐述了通量测定中仪器本身的物理限制、二维和三维的气流运动、数据处理的方法和夜间通量的低估等不确定性的主要来源，并据此对通量观测研究中需要优先考虑的问题提出一些建议。研究认为数据质量控制与分析以及误差评价是不同通量站点间的结果比较和全球尺度综合分析的过程中需重点考虑的问题。     

基于多尺度遥感数据估算地表通量的方法及其验证分析

地表水热通量(显热通量、潜热通量)的遥感估算在全球气候变化、水资源、生态环境等研究领域具有重要的应用价值.MODIS数据的空间分辨率较低(热红外波段星下点为1 km),而地球表面的几何物理属性又具有高度非均匀性,因而在实际应用中面临较严重的尺度问题.探讨了多源卫星数据(中高分辨率Landsat TM与中低分辨率MODIS)相结合佑算像元通量的2种方法,分别利用高分辫率的地表分类及植被指数信息在混合像元内部进行亚像元处理,以提高非均匀地表混合像元的通量估算精度.研究数据来自于2008年黑河流域综合实验获取的遥感数据和辅助数据,验证数据来自于实验期间获取的不同下垫面的地表通量数据,包括涡度相关(EC)数据,以及大孔径闪烁仪(LAS)数据.计算结果表明,2种方法皆可在下垫面不均匀或者地表类型较复杂的情况下得到比较明显的纠正效果,纠正后的通量与观测更加接近.相比之下,利用植被指数分解温度的方法适用性更广,纠正效果更好.在地面验证中,对比分析了EC和LAS数据在TM尺度和MO-DIS尺度通量验证的适用性.LAS数据测量尺度与MODIS卫星像元尺度相匹配,可以直接验证MODIS通量计算结果,EC数据虽然可以直接验证TM计算的通量,但与MODIS数据对比,还需要进行尺度转换,即先用EC验证TM通量,然后将TM通量降尺度,与MODIS进行对比.最后对利用LAS验证通量的不确定性进行了分析,发现图像中LAS测点的几何定位误差以及LAS测量路径中像元的选取都对验证结果有一定影响.     

近岸海洋气象平台涡动相关数据处理与质量控制

涡动相关方法在海洋—大气界面通量过程的观测研究中得到广泛应用。通量观测的数据质量很大程度上取决于环境条件和订正方法的正确应用,因此需要对数据进行处理与质量控制。基于博贺海洋气象平台上方2层涡动相关系统约7个月的湍流观测数据,分析了目前未能在数据采集平台上实时运行的几种订正方法对通量结果的影响。分析表明：在通量值较小时,...     

黑河流域观测通量的空间代表性研究

地表湍流通量包括显热通量和潜热通量,它的准确测定对天气气候预报、农业节水和水资源管理等意义重大。目前应用较为广泛的通量测量技术有涡动相关仪(EC)和大孔径闪烁仪(LAS),前者是单点观测,观测范围通常只有几百米;后者近年来得到长足的发展,可以观测从几百米到十几公里尺度上的区域湍流通量。建立了EC和LAS通量解析足迹模型,详细介绍了足迹模型的理论依据和建立方法,并对二者模型的异同进行了阐释。在黑河流域遥感—地面观测同步试验中,以高寒与干旱区伴生的黑河流域为试验区,包括寒区水文试验、森林水文试验和干旱区水文试验,使用足迹模型分别分析了临泽草地站、阿柔冻融观测站的EC、LAS观测通量的源区,结合风向变化规律,对二者通量观测差异进行分析解释;分析了盈科灌区绿洲站、大野口关滩森林站的EC观测数据,以及阿柔冻融观测站的EC、LAS观测数据,选择具有代表性的月份,进行观测站点的空间代表性分析。结果表明:对通量观测站点进行空间代表性分析是十分必要的,可得到观测站点通量源区的时空变化特征,同时足迹模型在通量观测数据的分析中有很大的实用价值,可为今后通量观测数据的应用提供参考。     

用氡-222评价五缘湾的地下水输入

海底地下水排泄(SGD)近年来成为陆-海相互作用的研究热点,地球化学示踪方法是其主要研究手段,尝试用天然示踪剂氡-222评价厦门五缘湾的SGD。为了评价五缘湾SGD的入海通量及其变化,对五缘湾海水中²²²Rn和²²⁶Ra活度、大气中²²²Rn活度、风速、水温和水深进行了连续2 d的测量,对沉积物进行了培养实验用以获得其²²²Rn扩散通量和孔隙水中²²²Rn活度。基于海水中²²²Rn通量的质量平衡,对实测的海水中²²²Rn活度实施了母体支持、涨落潮影响、大气逃逸损失、沉积物扩散输入、混合损失的校正,保守估计SGD输入的²²²Rn通量在0~126.7 Bq/(m²·h)范围内变化,对海水中²²²Rn的平均贡献达54%。以井水和孔隙水中²²²Rn的加权平均值作为SGD端元的代表,获得SGD的输入速率为0~29.3 cm/d,平均输入速率9.3 cm/d。SGD输入速率的动态变化基本围绕12 h的周期波动,是对本海域正规半日潮的具体响应。假设SGD以平均速率在五缘湾海底输入,则五缘湾海底的SGD输入量为1.86×10⁵ m³/d。以陆源地下淡水占SGD输入量的10%考虑,五缘湾的陆源地下淡水输入量约为1.86×10⁴ m³/d。     

利用场地观测计算地表通量

高原地表的感热和潜热通量在亚洲季风系统中有很重要的作用。由于高原地域辽阔，且自然环境较严酷，不利于建立完善的地面观测系统。因此，卫星遥感观测就成为测算高原整体感热和潜热通量的有效工具。地面场地的观测结果作为地表通量的真实值，对于卫星遥感测算是非常重要的。它也为构建陆面—大气模型提供了科学依据，是卫星资料的资料同化系统中的重要组成部分。 计算场地热量通量有几种不同的处理方法。最简单的方法利用有效的观测和试验的参数，可以给出稳定连续的估计。愈精确的Bowen比或者廓线的观测能给出愈精确的信息。综合了湍流测量及辐射测量、土壤热通量的观测结果的估计对陆面—大气相互作用进行了详细的描述，以适应模式的发展。从1998年开始，这些方法联合应用到青藏高原；场地通量观测方面的成果以及目前对其理解将在本文中做一概述。     

利用遥感数据绘制陆面-大气热通量和表面参数图

变量同化方案可用于推测表面能量平衡的两个关键参数,这两个关键参数是将有效能划分为潜热通量、感热通量及地面热通量（LE,H和G）的制约因素。遥感测量的地表温度（LST）是主要的数据源。1996年7月,以意大利阿诺盆地不同的土地覆盖为实例,绘制了一个为期18天的日间能量平衡组分图。在给定有效能的情况下,划分如下通量时仍需要一些主要的未知（无量纲的）参数：·在中性条件下,通过体积传热系数CBN获得近地面湍流的地形影响;·通过蒸发分数EF来表示LE和H相对值的表面控制。数据同化方案与1．1km分辨率的LST遥感测量影像图（从两个不同的卫星平台获得的基于光学、热学及微波的测量值）叠加生成热扩散的简约模型。测量值与模型预测值被认为是不确定的,由此推断其后估算参数的统计误差也是不确定的。     

大孔径闪烁仪观测数据的处理方法研究

大孔径闪烁仪可以获取公里级尺度的显热/潜热通量,其观测数据在农林业、水文、气象等领域的研究中具有越来越重要的作用.以海河流域2008年密云站和馆陶站大孔径闪烁仪的观测数据为例,讨论了数据筛选与处理方法,以及大气不稳定状态下不同处理方法对显热通量造成的影响.结果表明:空气折射指数结构参数应结合电压信号的方差进行计算、采用逐日的日平均波文比系数进行湿度订正、结合空间权重函数计算有效高度、选取Andreas(1988)稳定度函数计算显热通量等是可信的.通过对不同插补方法的比较可知,采用非线性回归方法和以零值替代的方法对不稳定状态和稳定状态下30 min缺失的显热通量进行插补,采用动态线性回归方法对日显热通量的缺失进行插补是可行的.为了解决由于冬天净辐射和显热通量较小,造成能量平衡方程余项法计算的蒸散量产生较大误差的问题,可采用根据大孔径闪烁仪与涡动相关仪观测的日蒸散量建立的关系式进行估算.基于上述方法的研究,形成了一套较为完整的大孔径闪烁仪观测数据的处理流程,保证了在不同下垫面、不同的天气状况条件下都能获取质量可靠、数据连续的大孔径闪烁仪观测的显热/潜热通量.     

真空预压加固区硬壳层的水分运移解析解

本文根据非饱和土体的渗流理论,建立水分运移模型,研究真空预压在稳态下的水分运移机制,给出了孔隙水压力分布的控制方程及其解析解。根据工程实测数据验证解析解的结果,并对不同参数进行分析。结果表明：稳态下真空预压水分运移模型计算的结果和现场实测数据基本吻合。扩散通量Q和降饱和系数?对上层非饱和区域的形成位置、强度及厚度的影响较大。扩散通量Q越大,土体表层的基质吸力越大,孔隙水压力变化趋势就越大;降饱和系数?在0.3~1.0 kPa-1内对非饱和土体部分基本没有影响。     

大孔径闪烁仪在黑河流域的应用分析研究

大孔径闪烁仪(LAS)是近年来发展较快的一种新型通量测量仪器,用以观测较大尺度上的感热通量变化.”黑河流域遥感-地面观测同步试验”项目在黑河上、中游地区不同下垫面貌一新建立了多个地面站,除常规气象参数、各辐射分量、土壤温湿梯度和热流以及涡动相关（EC）通量外,还在黑河上游阿柔冻融站及中游临泽草地站架设有大孔径闪烁仪.依据有关观测,着重分析大孔径闪烁仪所测感热通量的日、季变化特征.阿柔站所用数据时间段为2008年3月至2009年12月,临泽草地站为2008年5～8月.在与涡动相关通量数据进行对比分析中,除依据解析模式计算分析EC及LAS的源区差异及有关影响外,对不同大气稳定度下大孔径闪烁仪观测资料的质量控制、感热通量的计算方法等做了仔细分析,以提高LAS通量结果的总体质量.长期观测资料分析表明,大孔径闪烁仪与涡动相关仪的感热通量及其时间变化有较好的对应关系.部分时段的较明显差异,主要由二者源区所含下垫面类型的不同引起.多数情况下,LAS所测感热通量比EC的有关结果偏大,可能因为LAS的源区一般远比EC的大,大孔径闪烁仪所测通量有天然的面积平均效果.     

Geomorphology of desert sand dunes: A review of recent progress

Through the 1980s and 1990s studies of the geomorphology of desert sand dunes were dominated by field studies of wind flow and sand flow over individual dunes. Alongside these there were some attempts numerically to model dune development as well as some wind tunnel studies that investigated wind flow over dunes. As developments with equipment allowed, field measurements became more sophisticated. However, by the mid-1990s it was clear that even these more complex measurements were still unable to explain the mechanisms by which sand is entrained and transported. Most importantly, the attempt to measure the stresses imposed by the wind on the sand surface proved impossible, and the use of shear (or friction) velocity as a surrogate for shear stress also failed to deliver. At the same time it has become apparent that turbulent structures in the flow may be as or more important in explaining sand flux. In a development paralleled in fluvial geomorphology, aeolian geomorphologists have attempted to measure and model turbulent structures over dunes. Progress has recently been made through the use of more complex numerical models based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Some of the modelling work has also suggested that notions of dune ‘equilibrium’ form may not be particularly helpful. This range of recent developments has not meant that field studies are now redundant. For linear dunes careful observations of individual dunes have provided important data about how the dunes develop but in this particular field some progress has been made through ground-penetrating radar images of the internal structure of the dunes.

The paradigm for studies of desert dune geomorphology for several decades has been that good quality empirical data about wind flow and sand flux will enable us to understand how dunes are created and maintain their form. At least some of the difficulty in the past arose from the plethora of undirected data generated by largely inductive field studies. More recently, attention has shifted–although not completely–to modelling approaches, and very considerable progress has been made in developing models of dune development. It is clear, however, that the models will continue to require accurate field observations in order for us to be able to develop a clear understanding of desert sand dune geomorphology.     

大孔径闪烁仪的通量印痕分析与应用

针对北京密云站的长期通量观测进行大孔径闪烁仪的平均印痕区域分析.首先从2008年全年8 152组湍流观测资料,以整体湍流特征量σu/u*以及其他数据合理性判据进行质量控制,获得6 806组有效数据;然后用一个解析解模型逐时次计算大孔径闪烁仪的二维印痕,并进行统计平均,获得各季平均印痕分布;将当地气象条件根据风向、风速和稳定度分为12类,分别统计各类条件的平均印痕分布.最后,以实测感热通量为例,计算当地实际湍流通量的气候平均印痕区域.结果表明,当地大孔径闪烁仪的平均通量印痕季节变化不大;各类气象条件中,稳定度和风向是影响印痕区域大小和方向的重要因素,风速影响相对较小;以实际湍流通量为权重的气候平均印痕可更准确反映观测结果的空间代表性,其分布与简单平均的印痕分布有所不同.     

Predicting solar radiation fluxes for solar energy system applications

The mean daily global solar radiation flux is influenced by astronomical, climatological, geographical, geometrical, meteorological, and physical parameters. This paper deals with the study of the effects of influencing parameters on the mean daily global solar radiation flux, and also with the computation of the solar radiation flux at the surface of the earth in locations without solar radiation measurements. The reference–real data were borrowed from the Iranian Meteorological Organization. The analysis of data showed that the mean daily solar radiation flux on a horizontal surface is related to parameters such as: mean daily extraterrestrial solar radiation, average daily ratio of sunshine duration, mean daily relative humidity, mean daily maximum air temperature, mean daily maximum dew point temperature, mean daily atmospheric pressure, and sine of the solar declination angle. Multiple regression and correlation analysis were applied to predict the mean daily global solar radiation flux on a horizontal surface. The models were validated when compared with the reference–measured data of global solar radiation flux. The results showed that the models estimate the global solar radiation flux within a narrow relative error band. The values of mean bias errors and root mean square errors were within acceptable margins. The predicted values of global solar radiation flux by this approach can be used for the design and performance estimation in solar applications. The model can be used in areas where meteorological stations do not exist and information on solar radiation flux cannot be obtained experimentally.     

Bayesian Maximum Entropy Analysis and Mapping: A Farewell to Kriging Estimators?

The Bayesian Maximum Entropy (BME) method of spatial analysis and mapping provides definite rules for incorporating prior information, hard and soft data into the mapping process. It has certain unique features that make it a loyal guardian of plausible reasoning under conditions of uncertainty. BME is a general approach that does not make any assumptions regarding the linearity of the estimator, the normality of the underlying probability laws, or the homogeneity of the spatial distribution. By capitalizing on various sources of information and data, BME introduces an epistemological framework that produces predictive maps that are more accurate and in many cases computationally more efficient than those derived by traditional techniques. In fact, kriging techniques can be derived as special cases of the BME approach, under restrictive assumptions regarding the prior information and the data available. BME is a more rigorous approach than indicator kriging for incorporating soft data. The BME formulation, in fact, applies in a spatial or a spatiotemporal domain and its extension to the case of block and vector random fields is straightforward. New theoretical results are presented and numerical examples are discussed, which use the BME approach to account for important sources of knowledge in a systematic manner. BME can be useful in practical situations in which prior information can be used to compensate for the limited amount of measurements available (e.g., preliminary or feasibility study levels) or soft data are available that can be combined with hard data to improve mapping significantly. BME may be then viewed as an effort towards the development of a more general framework of spatial/temporal analysis and mapping, which includes traditional geostatistics as its limiting case, and it also provides the means to derive novel results that could not be obtained by traditional geostatistics.     

On the use of 3-dimensional plots in KAr dating

3-Dimensional correlation diagrams have advantages over 2-dimensional ones (‘isochrons’) for interpreting the results of KAr measurements on suites of coeval samples, since they display all the data without making a priori assumptions. This is a particular advantage for distinguishing between ‘initial’ argon of constant isotopic composition and ‘excess’ argon of constant concentration, because at present their detection has relied upon separate diagrams constructed upon mutually exclusive assumptions.The method also permits the relationships between the various models in use to be more easily grasped but—like all such plots—can only show that a given physical model is consistent with the data, not that it is the only consistent one.     

Reply to comments by R. Von Herzen, E.E. Davis, A.T. Fisher, C.A. Stein and H.N. Pollack on “Earth's heat flux revised and linked to chemistry”

The lengthy comment by Von Herzen et al. does not address the most important conclusions of the paper by Hofmeister and Criss [Hofmeister, A.M., Criss, R.E., 2005, Earth's heat flux revisited and linked to chemistry. Tectonophys. 395, 159–177.]. These are 1) that actual measurements better describe the Earth than do simplistic models with demonstrably unrealistic boundary conditions that diverge markedly from the data; and 2) that the models are unconstrained, resulting in a series of papers proposing values for the global flux that have become increasingly disparate from the growing data base over time (Fig. 3 in our paper). We disagree strongly with penultimate concluding statement of Von Herzen et al., “that it is preferable to base surface heat flow analysis not only on the extensive measurements but also on well understood processes that are known to bias the values and statistics of the measurements,” as our Fig. 3 demonstrates that no consistent magnitude has been assigned to the alleged advective flux, so that neither the processes nor the correction are “well understood”. We do not deny the existence of submarine hydrothermal systems, but we disagree strongly with the scales over which they are alleged to operate, and with the large Rayleigh and Nusselt numbers Von Herzen et al. assign to them.