西非被动大陆边缘重力滑脱构造体系下的塑性构造

论述了西非被动大陆边缘深水环境下的重力滑脱构造体系中的塑性构造。研究发现塑性地层在整个西非被动大陆边缘都有分布,且盐岩塑性层主要分布在西非被动大陆边缘的西南部和西北部,发育层位为过渡期(J-K)构造层之内;中部尼日尔三角洲等塑性层主要为泥岩塑性层,发育层位为古近系和新近系。根据重力滑脱构造体系发育特征可划分为:以正断裂和塑性焊接构造为主的上部重力滑脱伸展构造、以底辟构造为主的中部重力滑脱底辟构造、以冲断裂、塑性褶皱和塑性冲断构造为主的下部重力滑脱冲断构造。根据塑性构造上覆地层的变形过程,塑性构造演化主要经历了后生变形期和同生变形期。塑性构造变形机制主要受基底掀斜作用和上覆地层的沉积速率控制。塑性构造中的底辟、褶皱、冲断及塑性焊接构造对油气成藏的控制作用依次减弱。     

转换大陆边缘盆地构造特征——以西非贝宁盆地为例

立足于大西洋的形成与演化,划分了贝宁盆地构造演化阶段,厘定了裂陷期盆地的边界,分析了盆地结构和构造特征,明确了盆地构造样式。贝宁盆地经历裂陷期、漂移期两个构造演化阶段,不发育盐岩。受早白垩世裂陷期盆地东、西部应力差异控制,盆地形成了东部拉张构造区和西部走滑构造区,盆地裂谷分布具有"东宽西窄"的特征。东部拉张构造区发育近东西向断裂体系,主要为拉张作用形成的铲式正断层,西部走滑作用区发育NE—SW向走滑断裂体系,发育陡直的走滑断裂,主要为走滑作用形成的走滑断层。受早白垩世东、西部应力差异和晚白垩世构造反转、新生代重力滑脱作用的控制,盆地发育拉张、扭张、挤压、重力滑脱4类构造样式,丰富的构造样式为盆地构造圈闭发育提供了有利的条件。     

深水褶皱冲断带的构造变形和油气地质特征

深水褶皱冲断带是目前全球油气勘探的重要领域,其构造变形和油气地质特征是勘探研究的主要内容。通过对不同地区深水褶皱冲断带的地震剖面解释和综合分析,结合沉积特征对其构造样式、变形特征和石油地质特征进行了研究。研究表明,在主动大陆边缘和被动大陆边缘存在4种不同构造样式的深水褶皱冲断带,即:主动大陆边缘型深水褶皱冲断带;被动大陆边缘背景下的泥岩滑脱型、盐岩滑脱型和重力垮塌滑动型深水褶皱冲断带。由于他们具有不同的驱动机制、构造特征和演化特征,导致了其含油气性差别较大。主动大陆边缘背景下发育的深水褶皱冲断带主要发育倾向陆地的逆冲断层、叠瓦构造以及相关的褶皱构造,缺乏有效的烃源岩和储层。被动大陆边缘背景下发育的深水褶皱冲断带可以划分为伸展区、过渡区和挤压区3部分,并发育相关构造,其中泥岩滑脱型和盐岩滑脱型深水褶皱冲断带已经有大量的油气发现。     

台湾海峡沉积盆地的演化与油气远景

台湾海峡沉积盆地新生代以来构造演化经历了早第三纪陆缘裂谷、晚第三纪挤压收缩和第四纪隆起封闭等发育阶段，属残留陆缘裂谷，具有良好的油气远景，其中，海峡中部油气远景最佳。     

巴西东北部海域盆地重力滑脱构造体系特征

重力滑脱构造是被动大陆边缘盆地广泛发育的一种构造样式。从重力滑脱构造的形成机制出发,分析并指出巴西东北部海域盆地重力滑脱构造主要分布区域有:福斯杜—亚马逊、帕拉—马拉尼郝和巴雷里尼亚斯盆地深水区;进而对这3个盆地的重力滑脱构造特征进行分析,明确了重力滑脱伸展区、平移区、冲断区的构造样式及圈闭发育类型。其中,福斯杜—亚马逊盆地重力滑脱构造最为发育且圈闭类型多样,受漂移晚期重力滑脱作用影响形成的伸展和冲断构造是盆地的主要圈闭类型。最后,论述了福斯杜—亚马逊盆地重力滑脱构造对油气的控制作用及其勘探潜力。     

东非鲁武马盆地陆坡深水沉积特征及主控因素

东非鲁武马盆地陆坡深水区发育了挤压冲断带和伸展断陷两种类型的构造,这种特殊构造背景下的深水沉积特征尚无研究报道。利用高分辨率三维地震资料,详细描述了鲁武马盆地陆坡第四系深水沉积特征,并探讨其主控因素。结果表明,鲁武马盆地陆坡深水区主要发育5种深水沉积类型:陆坡峡谷-水道充填沉积、正断层改造的朵体、沉积物波、海底滑坡和等深流沉积。深水沉积主要受构造活动和地形地貌控制,西部挤压剥蚀区主要发育带状的峡谷-水道体系、丘状的等深流漂积体以及波状的沉积物波,东部拉张沉积区主要发育海底滑坡沉积及深水朵体。     

西非陆缘盆地中南段构造与沉积研究

作为全球油气勘探的热点,西非陆缘盆地中南段已经获得了大量的油气发现,而且中国石油企业在该区域已有开发区块。巨厚的阿普特期盐岩将该区分为盐下陆相裂谷和盐上海相被动陆缘两套勘探层系,该套盐岩作为良好的盖层起到了保存油气的作用,但由于其遮蔽效应,导致了地震资料在盐下层成像品质差,造成了盐下层序研究程度低,裂谷主控断裂、裂谷规模及展布形态不清楚,严重制约了盐下油气勘探的进程。本文综述了国内外近年来关于西非陆缘盆地中南段构造演化、盐上和盐下层序构造、盐岩特征以及盆地构造的研究进展。目前针对盐下裂谷研究主要集中在陆区,海域研究程度低,现有的盆地构造单元划分是以盐上层序为主,并不适用于盐下油气勘探先进问题,建议加强该区基础地质与地球物理研究,开展与南美东部陆缘盆地盐下裂谷对比研究,提高盐下地震成像品质,重视地震-重磁联合研究,通过地质与地球物理综合研究,尽快查明盐下裂谷主控断裂、基底形态、隆坳格局等油气分布控制因素,为中国石油公司在该区油气战略选区及下步勘探部署提供依据。     

从陆内到陆缘:中国东部古近纪断陷盆地的深部背景及沉积特征

太平洋板块、印度板块和欧亚板块的演化对中国东部古近纪沉积盆地的沉降及充填具有控制作用。讨论了我国东部新生代断陷盆地群的深部构造背景,在相对统一的板块构造背景中初步分析了陆缘断陷盆地和陆内断陷盆地的形成演化与周边板块主要构造运动事件的关系,并对这种关系的一致性进行了简要讨论。在此基础上,对不同构造演化阶段内的陆缘和陆内断陷盆地的沉积建造特点和沉降中心迁移规律进行了对比分析,对位于中国东部复杂构造体制内不同位置的陆缘与陆内断陷盆地每个构造演化阶段的沉积响应特征及其一致性和差异性进行了初步研究。将东部陆内和陆缘断陷盆地的沉积建造渐变特征或变异规律与深部构造过程表现进行综合分析,对深入理解我国东部陆相断陷盆地群系的盆间关系,深入认识新生代断陷盆地浅部过程与深部过程之间的耦合具有重要理论意义。     

非洲东、西陆缘油气成藏特征及主控因素对比——以鲁伍马盆地和尼日尔三角洲盆地为例

非洲陆缘的油气资源潜力越来越受到人们的广泛关注,并逐渐成为世界主要的油气产区和投资热点之一。但目前为止,油气产出主要集中于非洲西部陆缘,非洲东部陆缘至今还没有显著的石油发现。以非洲东、西陆缘构造演化为基础,通过对比鲁伍马盆地和尼日尔三角洲盆地烃源岩、储集层、盖层、油气系统及构造圈闭等油气成藏条件,对两者油气资源差异的主控因素进行分析。由于非洲大陆东、西两侧分别与不同的板块相邻,非洲东、西陆缘的形成时间和构造演化不尽相同,导致二者油气资源分布存在较大差异。非洲西部陆缘油气成藏条件优越,优质烃源岩发育,盖层条件较好,油气成藏富集。非洲东部陆缘油气成藏条件较西非差,烃源岩品质不好,火山活动多发,其周围圈闭破坏严重。但可以从西非陆缘成功的勘探经验中得到启发:高品质的烃源岩、可以形成局部盖层和盐构造圈闭的盐层序可能成为未来重点考虑的勘探目标;赞比西三角洲的深水区域可能是今后勘探的重点。     

地中海海岭泥火山的构造特征及其油气意义

地中海海岭泥火山属于典型的活动陆缘泥火山特征,上面覆盖着富含有机质、高沉积速率的沉积物盖层。受板块构造挤压作用的影响,增生楔内断裂和盐底辟构造发育,为地层深部高压的流体和气体的向上运移提供通道。同时,渗透性差的海底碳酸盐盖层和墨西拿期蒸发盐又是理想的油气和天然气水合物捕获体,已经成为海底油气、天然气水合物评估的重要标志地貌。台湾增生楔和地中海海岭有着相似的活动陆缘地质构造特征,具有类似的成油环境及沉积物中流体、气体的迁移机制。通过对比研究,可进一步了解活动板块陆缘增生楔的油气生储意义。     

Salt tectonics at passive margins: Geology versus models

Salt tectonics at passive margins is currently interpreted as a gravity-driven process but according to two different types of models: i) pure spreading only driven by differential sedimentary loading and ii) dominant gliding primarily due to margin tilt (slope instability). A comparative analysis of pure spreading and pure spreading is made using simple mechanics as well as available laboratory experiments and numerical models that consider salt tectonic processes at the whole basin scale. To be effective, pure spreading driven by sedimentary loading requires large differential overburden thicknesses and therefore significant water depths, high sediment density, low frictional angles of the sediments (high fluid pore pressure) and a seaward free boundary of the salt basin (salt not covered by sediments). Dominant gliding does not require any specific condition to be effective apart from the dip on the upper surface of the salt. It can occur for margin tilt angles lower than 1° for basin widths in the range of 200-600 km and initial sedimentary cover thickness up to 1 km, even in the absence of abnormal fluid pressure. In pure spreading, salt resists and sediments drive whereas in dominant gliding both salt and sediments drive. In pure spreading, extension is located inside the prograding sedimentary wedge and contraction at the tip. Both extension and contraction migrate seaward with the sedimentary progradation. Migration of the deformation can create an extensional inversion of previously contractional structures. In pure spreading, extension is located updip and contraction downdip. Extension migrates downdip and contraction updip. Migration of the deformation leads to a contractional inversion of previously extensional structures (e.g. squeezed diapirs). Mechanical analysis and modelling, either analogue or numerical, and comparison with margin-scale examples, such as the south Atlantic margins or northern Gulf of Mexico, indicate that salt tectonics at passive margins is dominated by dominant gliding down the margin dip. On the contrary, salt tectonics driven only by differential sedimentary loading is a process difficult to reconcile with geological evidence.     

The structural evolution of the Messinian evaporites in the Levantine Basin

The Levantine Basin in the South-eastern Mediterranean Sea is a world class site for studying the initial stages of salt tectonics driven by differential sediment load, because the Messinian evaporites are comparatively young, the sediment load varies along the basin margin, they are hardly tectonically overprinted, and the geometry of the basin and the overburden is well-defined. In this study we analyse depositional phases of the evaporites and their structural evolution by means of high-resolution multi-channel seismic data. The basinal evaporites have a maximum thickness of about 2 km, precipitated during the Messinian Salinity Crisis, 5.3–5.9 Ma ago. The evaporite body is characterized by 5 transparent layers sequenced by four internal reflections. We suggest that each of the internal reflection bands indicate a change of evaporite facies, possibly interbedded clastic sediments, which were deposited during temporal sea level rises. All of these internal reflections are differently folded and distorted, proving that the deformation was syn-depositional. Thrust angles up to 14° are observed. Backstripping of the Pliocene–Quaternary reveals that salt tectonic is mainly driven by the sediment load of the Nile Cone. The direction of lateral salt displacement is mainly SSW–NNE and parallel to the bathymetric trend. Apparent rollback anticlines off Israel result rather from differential subsidence than from lateral salt displacement. In the south-eastern basin margin the deposition of the Isreali Slump Complex (ISC) is coeval with the onset of salt tectonic faulting, suggesting a causal link between slumping processes and salt tectonics.

The superposition of ‘thin-skinned’ tectonics and ‘thick-skinned’ tectonics becomes apparent in several locations: The fold belt off the Israeli Mediterranean slope mainly results from active strike-slip tectonics, which becomes evident in faults which reach from the seafloor well below the base of the evaporites. Owing to the wrenching of the crustal segments which are bounded by deep-rooted fault lines like the Damietta–Latakia, Pelusium and Shelf Edge Hinge line the setting is transpressional south of 32°N, where the fault lines bend further towards the west. This adds a component of ‘thick-skinned’ transpression to the generally ‘thin-skinned’ compressional regime in the basin. Above 1.5 km of evaporites, a mud volcano is observed with the mud source seemingly within the evaporite layer. At the eastern Cyprus Arc, the convergence zone of the African and the Anatolian plates, deep-rooted compression heavily deformed the base of the evaporites, whereas at the Eratosthenes Seamount mainly superficial compression affecting the Post-Messinian sediments and the top of the evaporites is observed.     

Style and timing of salt tectonics in the Dniepr-Donets Basin (Ukraine): implications for triggering and driving mechanisms of salt movement in sedimentary basins

The Ukrainian Dniepr-Donets Basin (DDB) is a Late Palaeozoic intracratonic rift basin, with sedimentary thicknesses up to 19 km, displaying the effects of salt tectonics during its entire history of formation, from Late Devonian rifting to the Tertiary. Hundreds of concordant and discordant salt structures formed during this time. It is demonstrated in this paper that the variety of styles of salt structure formation in the DDB provide important constraints on understanding the triggering and driving mechanisms of salt kinematics in sedimentary basins in general. Salt movement in the DDB began during the Devonian syn-rift phase of basin development and exerted controls on the later distribution of salt structures though the geometry of basement faults is not directly responsible for the regular spacing of salt structures. Post-rift salt movements in the DDB occurred episodically. Episodes of salt movement were triggered by tectonic events, specifically two extensional events during the Carboniferous, an extensional reactivation at the end of Carboniferous–earliest Permian, and a compressional event at the end of the Cretaceous. Extensional events that induced salt movement were ‘thick-skinned’ (i.e. basement involved in deformation) rather than ‘thin-skinned’. Most overburden deformation related to salt movements is ductile regardless of sedimentary bulk lithology and degree of diagenesis, while the deformation of sedimentary cover in areas where salt is absent is mainly brittle. This implies that the presence of salt changes the predominant mode of deformation of overlying sedimentary rocks. Episodes of salt movement lasted longer than the periods of active tectonics that initiated them. Buoyancy, erosion, and differential loading all played a role in driving halokinesis once tectonic forces had pushed the salt-overburden system into disequilibrium; among these factors, erosion of overburden above growing salt structures acted as a key self-renewing force for development of salt diapirs. Very high sedimentation rates (related to high post-rift tectonic subsidence rates), particularly during the Carboniferous, were able to bury diapirs and to load salt bodies such that buoyancy, erosion, and differential loading forces eventually became insufficient to continue driving diapirism—until the system was perturbed by an ensuing tectonic event. In contrast, some salt anticlines and diapirs developed continuously during the entire Mesozoic because of much-reduced tectonic subsidence rates (and sedimentation supply) during this time. However, a Lower Permian salt series and overhangs of buried diapirs played an important role in preventing overburden piercing (and fracturing) during the Mesozoic and, specifically, during the Late Cretaceous salt diapirism phase.     

The role of basement tectonic reactivation on the structural evolution of Campos Basin,offshore Brazil: Evidence from 3D seismic analysis and section restoration

The structural analysis of regional 3D seismic data shows evidence of long-term tectonic inheritance in Campos Basin, offshore Brazil. Main Lower Cretaceous rift structures controlled themselves by strike-slip deformation belts related to Proterozoic orogenic events, have been episodically reactivated during the divergent margin phase of Campos Basin, from the Albian to the Miocene. Balanced cross-sections of major salt structures indicate that such tectonic reactivations have been controlling thin-skinned salt tectonics, triggering pulses of gravitational gliding above the Aptian salt detachment. Additionally, major basin features like the Neogene progradation front and the salt tectonic domains are constrained by the main Proterozoic orogenic trends of the Ribeira Belt (NE–SW) and the Vitória-Colatina Belt (NNW–SSE). As the basement involved structures observed in Campos Basin can be attributed to general geodynamic processes, it is suggested that basement tectonic reactivation can be as relevant as isostatic adjustment and detached thin-skinned tectonics on the structural evolution of divergent margin settings.     

Superposed deformation straddling the continental-oceanic transition in deep-water Angola

The Angolan margin is the type area for raft tectonics. New seismic data reveal the contractional buffer for this thin-skinned extension. A 200-km-long composite section from the Lower Congo Basin and Kwanza Basin illustrates a complex history of superposed deformation caused by: (1) progradation of the margin; and (2) episodic Tertiary epeirogenic uplift. Late Cretaceous tectonics was driven by a gentle slope created by thermal subsidence; extensional rafting took place updip, contractional thrusting and buckling downdip; some distal folds were possibly unroofed to form massive salt walls. Oligocene deformation was triggered by gentle kinking of the Atlantic Hinge Zone as the shelf and coastal plain rose by 2 or 3 km; relative uplift stripped Paleogene cover off the shelf, provided space for Miocene progradation, and steepened the continental slope, triggering more extension and buckling. In the Neogene, a subsalt half graben was inverted or reactivated, creating keystone faults that may have controlled the Congo Canyon; a thrust duplex of seaward-displaced salt jacked up the former abyssal plain, creating a plateau of salt 3–4 km thick on the present lower slope. The Angola Escarpment may be the toe of the Angola thrust nappe, in which a largely Cretaceous roof of gently buckled strata, was transported seawards above the thickened salt by up to 20 km.     

An incomplete correlation between pre-salt topography,top reservoir erosion,and salt deformation in deep-water Santos Basin (SE Brazil)

In deep-water Santos Basin, SE Brazil, hypersaline conditions during the Aptian resulted in the accumulation of halite and carnallite over which stratified evaporites, carbonates and shales were folded, translated downslope and thrusted above syn-rift structures. As a result, high-quality 3D seismic data reveal an incomplete relationship between pre-salt topography and the development of folds and thrusts in Aptian salt and younger units. In the study area, three characteristics contrast with known postulates on passive margins’ fold-and-thrust belts: a) the largest thrusts do not necessarily occur where the salt is thicker, b) synthetic-to-antithetic fault ratios are atypically high on the distal margin, and c) regions of intense folding do not necessarily coincide with the position of the larger syn-rift horsts and ramps below the salt. Regions marked by important erosion and truncation of pre-salt strata, uplifted and exposed sub-aerially before the deposition of Aptian salt, can form structural lows at present or be part of horsts uplifted after the Aptian. This is an observation that suggests significant intra-salt shear drag above pre-salt structural highs during Aptian-Late Cretaceous gravitational gliding, but not on younger horsts and ramps reactivated after the main phase of salt movement. Either formed by drag or sub-aerial erosion, strata truncation below the Aptian salt does not correlate with the present-day pre-salt structure in terms of its magnitude and distribution. In addition, there is a marked increase in deformation towards the distal margin, where low-angle thrusts are ubiquitous on seismic data. The geometry and large synthetic-to-antithetic fault ratios of post-salt strata on the distal margin lead us to consider a combination of gravitational gliding of salt from the northwest and ridge push from the east as responsible for the observed styles of salt deformation.     

Gas hydrate formation in compressional,extensional and un-faulted structural settings – Examples from New Zealand's Hikurangi margin

We investigate gas hydrate formation processes in compressional, extensional and un-faulted settings on New Zealand's Hikurangi margin using seismic reflection data. The compressional setting is characterized by a prominent subduction wedge thrust fault that terminates beneath the base of gas hydrate stability, as determined from a bottom-simulating reflection (BSR). The thrust is surrounded by steeply dipping strata that cross the BSR at a high angle. Above the BSR, these strata are associated with a high velocity anomaly that is likely indicative of relatively concentrated, and broadly distributed, gas hydrates. The un-faulted setting—sedimentary infill of a slope basin on the landward side of a prominent thrust ridge—is characterized by a strong BSR, a thick underlying free gas zone, and short positive polarity reflection segments that extend upward from the BSR. We interpret the short reflection segments as the manifestation of gas hydrates within relatively coarse-grained sediments. The extensional setting is a localized, shallow response to flexural bending of strata within an anticline. Gas has accumulated beneath the BSR in the apex of folding. A high-velocity zone directly above the BSR is probably mostly lithologically-derived, and only partly related to gas hydrates. Although each setting shows evidence for focused gas migration into the gas hydrate stability zone, we interpret that the compressional tectonic setting is most likely to contain concentrated gas hydrates over a broad region. Indeed, it is the only setting associated with a deep-reaching fault, meaning it is the most likely of the three settings to have thermogenic gas contributing to hydrate formation. Our results highlight the importance of anisotropic permeability in layered sediments and the role this plays in directing sub-surface fluid flow, and ultimately in the distribution of gas hydrate. Each of the three settings we describe would warrant further investigation in any future consideration of gas hydrates as an energy resource on the Hikurangi margin.     

东海陆架盆地南部构造样式及分布特征

以东海陆架盆地南部为重点研究对象,基于区域地震反射资料,结合盆地的结构特征,分析、总结了其构造样式特征。结果表明:根据构造样式形成的动力学机制,可以将东海陆架盆地南部划分为伸展型构造样式、挤压型构造样式和复合型构造样式3类;伸展型构造样式可继续分为半地堑(箕状断陷)构造组合、复式地堑式构造组合、多米诺式断裂构造组合、掀斜断块和火成岩构造;挤压型构造样式分为挤压背斜、断背斜和叠瓦式断裂组合;复合型构造样式分为正反转构造和负花状构造。