Gerris数值方案及其在海洋数值模拟中的应用

基于动态自适应网格的开源软件Gerris受到越来越多海洋和水文研究者的关注.概述了Gerris开发背景、研究现状和特点,详细阐述了Gerris数值方案,包括动态自适应网格、动态负载平衡技术原理、广义正交曲线坐标系、内嵌复杂固体边界和地形数据的处理方法,并探讨了Gerris在海洋数值模拟中的初步应用.结果表明,Gerris动态自适应网格在多尺度问题模拟中的优势独特,在海洋数值模拟应用中可通过自适应网格提高地理特征的精度,通过GTS(或KDT)格式的数据来处理地形和网格,达到同时兼顾精确性和易用性的目的,使得Gerris与其他海洋模式进行有机结合成为重要发展方向.     

论大洋环流的能量平衡

驱动大洋环流的能源和能汇包括潮汐,海表大气压力脉动,风应力,海表加热和冷却,海表淡水通量,以及海底地热。即使用未来最快的计算机也不可能把湍流的细节算出来,因而次网格尺度过程参数化总是不可避免的,所以大洋环流理论和数值模式的理论框架必须建立在次网格过程参数化的基础上。特别需要指出的是这种理论框架必须有“外来”的机械能源来维持在层结海洋中的混合过程。这种所谓的“外来”能源事实上并非是外来的,它是能量由海盆尺度到小尺度串级的结果。在一个基于次网格尺度过程参数化的模式中,这部分能量在表面上看来就是外来的。最重要的一点是系统所能提供给混合所需要的能量的多少是控制海洋环流强弱的关键因素。因此,能量守恒应当作为大洋环流模式的重要约束之一。     

海洋环流模式对平流方案与分辨率的敏感性

文中将中国科学院大气物理研究所大气科学和地球流体力学数值模拟国家重点实验室(LASG)发展的准全球海洋环流模式(LICOM),从水平分辨率、垂直分辨率、平流方案3个方面分别采用不同的方案,进行组合试验,研究这些因素对于海洋环流(特别是热带海洋)的重要影响.8组试验表明,水平分辨率的提高,对于流场的改进有显著作用,能够使流场达到与实际非常接近的强度;调整的垂直分辨率,上层海洋的加密,能够使热带太平洋上层海洋的模拟改进;引入的两步保形平流方案,能够使得热带太平洋海温的模拟有所改进,这种改进的效果在低分辨率的情况下,尤为明显.同时,8组试验也一致地表现出等温线的密集程度比实际情况稀疏,这反映了模式在物理过程,特别是混合过程的描述方面,还有值得改进的地方.     

海洋垂直混合对中尺度海气浪耦合模式预报效果的敏感性试验

为了比较两个不同的海洋垂直混合参数化方案在中尺度海气浪耦合模式数值预报中的效果,采用军队T₇₉₉全球预报系统和西北太平洋海洋预报系统的预报场资料驱动区域中尺度海气浪耦合模式,针对西北太平洋在2014年9月7—10日和17—20日的大气和海洋要素场进行数值回报试验,并将同期台风观测资料、NCEP再分析资料以及NOAA海表面温度数据各自与模式结果进行比较。结果表明,在无台风天气下使用GLS-ε方案对大气要素的预报效果更好,而MY2.5方案在台风天气影响下表现更好,同时其在连续8天的预报中无溢出现象,较GLS-ε方案稳定性更好;台风影响区域的海表面温度对MY2.5方案更敏感;台风天气过程中,MY2.5方案引起的海洋上层温度混合更强烈。      

The sources and transport of iron in the North Paci?c and its impact on marine ecosystems

微量元素铁是浮游植物生长所必需的营养元素,对于促进海洋初级生产力和增加海洋吸收二氧化碳的能力等具有重要作用。相对于世界上其他海域,铁限制使得北太平洋成为典型的高营养盐、低叶绿素(HNLC)区域。陆源铁主要通过河流输入和大气沉降进入海洋;海洋中垂直混合等物理过程也是输送生物可利用铁进入上层海洋的重要过程。目前,随着人类污染的加剧,人类活动排放的铁对海洋生态系统的影响也变得更加显著。为了研究铁循环过程及其对北太平洋海洋生态系统的影响,以国家自然科学基金资助的"北太平洋铁的来源与传输及其对上层海洋生态系统的影响"为依托,该项目将主要关注三个重要科学问题:(1)北太平洋上层生物可利用铁的主要来源是什么?(2)海洋中铁络合配体的循环会对北太平洋上层海洋生态系统产生怎样的影响?(3)未来全球变化对铁循环及上层海洋生态系统的可能影响是什么?项目将对铁在当前和未来海洋酸化和物理环境变化背景下的分布特征及其对海洋生态系统产生的影响进行研究。项目研究结果有望加深我们对北太平洋海洋生态系统的认识和理解,实现对未来北太平洋生态系统变化趋势的预测。     

大尺度凝结水在下落过程中的蒸发对模拟气候特征的影响

将新的大尺度凝结水在降落过程中蒸发量计算的方案引入p-σ混合坐标系初始方程九层模式中, 运用1979～1995年NCEP/NCAR再分析资料月平均场作为初始场和侧边界强迫, 模拟得到1月和7月气候特征, 并用F检验和t检验方法检验了原大尺度凝结方案与新方案模拟结果差异的显著性.结果表明, 在大尺度凝结降水中出现蒸发的大部分地区为我国东部和南部的沿海地区以及相应的海洋上.模拟的气候特征的差异主要集中在我国东部以及东南沿海一带的大陆和海洋, 其中在总降水场的模拟结果中, 较好地消除了原模式在华北地区的虚假大值区.检验结果表明, 7月的差异比1月的显著, 而且各要素平均值的差异不大, 方差的差异比较显著.     

海洋环流模式的发展和应用Ⅰ.全球海洋环流模式

概述近10年来中国科学院大气物理研究所大气科学和地球流体动力学数值模拟国家重点实验室全球海洋环流模式的发展及其在全球海气耦合模式的发展和气候模拟方面的应用.重点是:一个30层、0.5°×0.5°的准全球海洋环流模式LICOM的建立及其模拟的热带太平洋海洋环流和印度尼西亚贯穿流;以20层海洋模式为海洋分量建立的全球海洋-大气-陆面系统耦合模式GOALS在气候变化模拟方面的应用,和以海洋模式L30T63为海洋分量建立的灵活的耦合环流模式FGCM-0在热带太平洋-印度洋海气相互作用及古海洋-古气候模拟方面的应用     

从业务数值预报模式输出产生的中尺度预报

一个被称为模式输出增强(Model Output Enhancement,缩写为MOE)的方法已被开发用于产生和显示中尺度天气预报.这个MOE方法是通过用地球物理和陆地覆盖(1and cover)资料修正模式输出从天气尺度数值天气预报模式导出中尺度或高分辨率(1公里量级)天气预报.由MOE方法产生的中尺度预报显示叠加在地形透视图上的彩色分类图上.MOE方法的顺序为内插模式输出,外推内插值到地面,用地形数据增强外推值产生高分辨率(约1km~2)预报.它已被宾夕法尼亚州几个晴天个例研究的中尺度最高温度和最低温度预报所证实.用一些选定的气候站的资料对产生的预报做了评价.     

风暴尺度集合预报中的混合初始扰动方法及其在北京2012年“7.21”暴雨预报中的应用

风暴尺度集合预报系统（Storm-Scale Ensemble Forecast system,简称SSEFs）中集合成员之间发散度不足一直都是研究的难点。本文尝试了将Barnes空间滤波融入到集合转换卡尔曼滤波（ETKF）更新预报系统中的混合初值扰动法。该方案将ETKF方法的小尺度信息与来自于侧边界条件扰动的大尺度信息相结合,缓解了扰动在侧边界不匹配的问题。通过2012年北京“7.21”暴雨并使用邻位方法对比分析了不同初值扰动方案在不同时间尺度与空间尺度上的特征,在此基础上进一步探讨了构造混合初始扰动法的可行性。结果表明:ETKF试验所构造的初始扰动无法与侧边界条件扰动相匹配,混合后的初始扰动可以有效缓解SSEFs中由于初始扰动与侧边界扰动不匹配产生的虚假波动,其中大尺度信息保留较多的混合试验（ETKF80）和动力降尺度方案（Down）在减少虚假波动方面的效果最优;从集合离散度来看,在前期暖区降水阶段ETKF的离散度在小尺度上最大,随着锋面降水的开始,Down的离散度逐渐超过ETKF,而使用各滤波波段构造的混合试验同时具备ETKF与Down二者的特征。选择合理的滤波波段可以获得最为合理的离散度表现（ETKF180）,说明仅考虑侧边界匹配（Down和ETKF80）并不能获得最合理的集合离散度,应综合考虑其他因素。从降水概率预报结果来看,选取合适的滤波波段所构造的混合扰动试验同样获得了较好的效果。     

模式垂直分辨率对梅雨锋暴雨数值模拟的影响

利用中尺度数值模式MM5(V3),对2003年7月7日~8日发生在武汉地区的一次梅雨锋暴雨过程进行了数值模拟。采用经过简化处理的基于矢量模的双参数最优化处理方法,对模式大气进行了垂直分层。在水平分辨率不变的情况下,数值模式的垂直分层分别采用25层和36层进行了对比模拟试验。模拟结果表明,水平分辨率达到较高的精度后,粗的垂直分辨率会放大模式中地形的作用,造成数值模拟雨带落区的偏差;要得到比较好的模拟结果,需要相应的提高数值模式的垂直分辨率。水平分辨率与垂直分辨率的不协调,会在水平方向上产生虚假的重力波,影响数值模式的模拟结果。     

臭氧和海温对夏季大气的影响机制

用球圈范围的Ｐ－σ坐标模式对Ｏ３和海温的影响进行了数值试验，第一种方案不包含Ｏ３，第二种包含了Ｏ３，第三种既包含了Ｏ３又引入了海洋混合层。结果表明，Ｏ３对大气的直接作用表现为高层大气的加热率增大，改变了１００ｈＰａ的气象场。间接作用则表现为Ｏ３引入促发了积云对流加热的变化，从而影响中、低层大气的加热率。海洋混合层的影响是直接的，主要通过海面感热和蒸发量的变化影响低层大气。     

On the sensitivity of global warming experiments to the parametrisation of sub-grid scale ocean mixing

An ocean general circulation model coupled to an energy-moisture balance atmosphere model is used to investigate the sensitivity of global warming experiments to the parametrisation of sub-grid scale ocean mixing. The climate sensitivity of the coupled model using three different parametrisations of sub-grid scale mixing is 3°C for a doubling of CO₂ (6°C for a quadrupling of CO₂). This suggests that the ocean has only a weak feedback on global mean surface air temperature although significant regional differences, notably at high latitudes, exist with different sub-grid scale parametrisations. In the experiment using the Gent and McWilliams parametrisation for mixing associated with mesoscale eddies, an enhancement of the surface response in the Southern Ocean is found. This enhancement is largely due to the existence of more realistic sea-ice in the climatological control integration and the subsequent enhanced ice-albedo feedback upon warming. In accordance with earlier analyses, the Gent and McWilliams scheme decreases the global efficiency of ocean heat uptake. During the transient phase of all experiments, the North Atlantic overturning initially weakened but ultimately recovered, surpassing its former strength. This suggests that in the region around the North Atlantic the ocean acts as a negative feedback on local warming during the transient phase but a positive feedback at equilibrium. During the transient phase of the experiments with a more sophisticated and realistic parametrisation of sub-grid scale mixing, warmed Atlantic water was found to penetrate at depth into the Arctic, consistent with recent observations in the region. Received: 14 October 1998 / Accepted: 27 April 1999     

Learning about the ocean carbon cycle from observational constraints and model simulations of multiple tracers

A key question in studies of the potential for reducing uncertainty in climate change projections is how additional observations may be used to constrain models. We examine the case of ocean carbon cycle models. The reliability of ocean models in projecting oceanic CO₂ uptake is fundamentally dependent on their skills in simulating ocean circulation and air–sea gas exchange. In this study we demonstrate how a model simulation of multiple tracers and utilization of a variety of observational data help us to obtain additional information about the parameterization of ocean circulation and air–sea gas exchange, relative to approaches that use only a single tracer. The benefit of using multiple tracers is based on the fact that individual tracer holds unique information with regard to ocean mixing, circulation, and air–sea gas exchange. In a previous modeling study, we have shown that the simulation of radiocarbon enables us to identify the importance of parameterizing sub-grid scale ocean mixing processes in terms of diffusive mixing along constant density surface (isopycnal mixing) and the inclusion of the effect of mesoscale eddies. In this study we show that the simulation of phosphate, a major macronutrient in the ocean, helps us to detect a weak isopycnal mixing in the upper ocean that does not show up in the radiocarbon simulation. We also show that the simulation of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) reveals excessive upwelling in the Southern Ocean, which is also not apparent in radiocarbon simulations. Furthermore, the updated ocean inventory data of man-made radiocarbon produced by nuclear tests (bomb ¹⁴C) enable us to recalibrate the rate of air–sea gas exchange. The progressive modifications made in the model based on the simulation of additional tracers and utilization of updated observational data overall improve the model’s ability to simulate ocean circulation and air–sea gas exchange, particularly in the Southern Ocean, and has great consequence for projected CO₂ uptake. Simulated global ocean uptake of anthropogenic CO₂ from pre-industrial time to the present day by both previous and updated models are within the range of observational-based estimates, but with substantial regional difference, especially in the Southern Ocean. By year 2100, the updated model estimated CO₂ uptake are 531 and 133 PgC (1PgC?=?10¹⁵ gram carbon) for the global and Southern Ocean respectively, whereas the previous version model estimated values are 540 and 190 PgC.     

Sensitivity of simulated salinities in a three-dimensional ocean general circulation model to vertical mixing of destabilizing surface fluxes

 We present simulations performed with a three dimensional global ocean general circulation model which show that simulated salinities and amounts of convective mixing are very sensitive to vertical mixing of surface buoyancy fluxes. If, as usual, surface buoyancy fluxes are placed entirely in the topmost model level, our model produces excessive convective mixing in the Southern Ocean. This results in poor stimulated salinity in the Southern Ocean. In this simulation, we assume, as usual, that both surface buoyancy forcing and vertical mixing are homogeneous within each grid cell. If, on the other hand, destabilizing surface fluxes are instantaneously mixed into the subsurface ocean, the model produces much less convective mixing and much more realistic salinities. The vertical mixing of surface buoyancy fluxes performed in this simulation is equivalent to assuming that those fluxes affect only a small fraction of each grid cell, and cause vertical mixing only in that limited area. Our interpretation of these results is that the usual assumption that both surface buoyancy forcing and vertical mixing are uniform within each grid cell has a detrimental effect on model results; these results could be significantly improved by good parametrizations which treat the horizontal inhomogeneity of surface buoyancy forcing and of vertical mixing. Received: 25 February 1998 / Accepted: 9 September 1998     

两方程湍流模型对内背风波数值模拟的影响

为了深入理解非静力近似下的波-湍相互作用问题,本研究在σ坐标的海洋环境研究和预报模型(MERF)中引入常用的Mellor-Yamada两方程湍混合参数化方案(MY2.5),评估垂向湍混合对小尺度背风波传播过程的影响.瞬时状态场的模拟结果表明,无论是否为非静力近似条件,上述湍参数化方案的引入都会减弱背风波传播的模拟效果.从时间平均场的试验结果来看,垂向湍混合过程会显著减小非静力近似和静力近似之间的差异.此外,能量收支分析的诊断结果表明,MY2.5方案会显著抑制陆坡地形下的背风波传播过程,进而将更多的潮能转化到不可逆的湍混合过程中.     

Bifurcations of the thermohaline circulation in a simplified three-dimensional model of the world ocean and the effects of inter-basin connectivity

A coarse-resolution, global, three-dimensional, idealised model of the world ocean, based on the thermocline equations, is described. It is demonstrated that, at suitable resolution, such a model can be integrated for hundreds or thousands of millenia, and could therefore form a component of an earth system model designed to investigate climate change on these time scales. As in other ocean models, the thermohaline circulation is found to exhibit multiple stable states. The bifurcation structure of the model has been explored, as a function of surface saline forcing, and is found to depend on the inter-basin connectivity, the topography, and the form of the imposed wind forcing.     

On the Importance of High-Resolution in Large-Scale Ocean Models

Eddying global ocean models are now routinely used for ocean prediction, and the value-added of a better representation of the observed ocean variability and western boundary currents at that resolution is currently being evaluated in climate models. This overview article begins with a brief summary of the impact on ocean model biases of resolving eddies in several global ocean–sea ice numerical simulations. Then, a series of North and Equatorial Atlantic configurations are used to show that an increase of the horizontal resolution from eddy-resolving to submesoscale-enabled together with the inclusion of high-resolution bathymetry and tides significantly improve the models' abilities to represent the observed ocean variability and western boundary currents. However, the computational cost of these simulations is extremely large, and for these simulations to become routine, close collaborations with computer scientists are essential to ensure that numerical codes can take full advantage of the latest computing architecture.     

Estimates of Anthropogenic CO_2 Uptake in a Global Ocean Model

A global ocean general circulation model (L30T63) is employed to study the uptake and distribution of anthropogenic CO2 in the ocean. A subgrid-scale mixing scheme called GM90 is used in the model. There are two main GM90 parameters including isopycnal diffusivity and skew (thickness) diffusivity. Sensitivities of the ocean circulation and the redistribution of dissolved anthropogenic CO2 to these two parameters are examined. Two runs estimate the global oceanic anthropogenic CO2 uptake to be 1.64 and 1.73 ...     

Stability dependent parameterisations of vertical mixing in ocean general circulation models

Summary Parameterisations of mixing induced through shear instability, internal wave breaking, and double diffusion are investigated in simulations of ocean climate using a global ocean general circulation model (OGCM). Focus is placed on the sensitivity of the large scale circulation, water mass formation and transport of heat as measures of the model's ability to represent current climate. The model resolution is typical of OGCMs being coupled to atmospheric. GCMs in climate models and the parameterisations investigated are all computationally inexpensive enough to allow for integrations on long time scales. Under the assumption of constant vertical eddy coefficients (the control case), the model climatology displays acceptable values of North Atlantic Deep Water formation, Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) transport, and Indonesian through-flow but an excessively deep and diffuse pycnocline structure with weak stratification in the deep ocean. It is found that various circulation and water mass properties are sensitive to the choice of parameterisation of vertical mixing and that determining a scheme which works satisfactorily over all regions (tropical, mid-latitude, and polar) of the domain is not straightforward. Parameterisations of internal wave breaking or upper ocean shear instability lead to some improvements in the model water mass formation. ACC and poleward heat transport when compared to the control case whereas parameterisations of double diffusive processes did not. Based on these and other results, various recommendations are made for mixing parameterisations in ocean climate models.With 8 Figures     

Comparison of vertical mixing schemes embedded in a global ocean GCM. Part II: Large scale circulation and water mass formation

Summary The sensitivity of the circulation and water mass properties in a global ocean circulation model (OGCM) to the stability dependent vertical mixing parameterisations of Pacanowski and Philander (1981) and Henderson-Sellers (1985) is investigated. The work extends a previous study which examined upper ocean charateristics and mixed layer evolution resulting from these schemes incorporated in the OGCM and made a recommendation as to the appropriateness of the latter scheme for global models. Under the assumption of constant vertical eddy coefficients (the control case), the model climatology displays acceptable values of North Atlantic Deep Water formation, Antarctic Circumpolar Current strength, and Indonesian throughflow but an excessively deep and diffuse pycnocline structure with weak stratification in the deep ocean. It is found that these circulation and water mass properties are sensitive to the choice of parametrisation of vertical mixing and that the two stability dependent schemes are unable to perform satisfactorily over the global domain, instead being better suited to the tropics. Under conditions optimal for representing the tropical current and temperature structure, these schemes result in significant weakening of major currents (particularly, the ACC) and reductions in the rates of deep water formation and poleward heat transports. These deficiencies can only be remedied at the expense of the improvements to the simulation in the tropical part of the domain. The results presented indicate that the suggestions made in the previous study do not extend to situations where the deep ocean, and particularly, the global thermohaline circulation is important.With 8 Figures