Changes in Cu Characteristics and Precipitation during Cu Merging

The results of investigation of convective cloud merging observed near Saint Petersburg are presented. Data obtained with a set of remote sensing instruments (radar, radiometer, and lightning location system) were analyzed. Rain gage network data are used. Clouds simulation is performed using a 1.5-dimensional nonstationary model. A method to calibrate the radar measurements to obtain precipitation characteristics using rain gage network data is developed. According to radar data, a 2-km increase in the cloud top height was observed after Cu merging, the maximum reflectivity of clouds increased at 10 dBZ, maximum rain intensity and rain flux increased by about two times. The increase in rainfall intensity is also corroborated by rain gage observations and numerical simulations. An increase in the intensity of lightning discharges during the merging is registered.     

An Overview of Surface-Based Precipitation Observations at Environment and Climate Change Canada

The objective of this paper is to provide an overview of the present status and procedures related to surface precipitation observations at Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC). This work was done to support the ongoing renewal of observation systems and networks at the Meteorological Service of Canada. The paper focusses on selected parameters, namely, accumulated precipitation, precipitation intensity, precipitation type, rainfall, snowfall, and radar reflectivity. Application-specific user needs and requirements are defined and captured by World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Expert Teams at the international level by Observing Systems Capability Analysis and Review (OSCAR) and WMO Integrated Global Observing System (WIGOS), and by ECCC user engagement initiatives within the Canadian context. The precipitation-related networks of ECCC are separated into those containing automatic instruments, those with human (manual) observers, and the radar network. The unique characteristics and data flow for each of these networks, the instrument and installation characteristics, processing steps, and limitations from observation to data distribution and storage are provided. A summary of precipitation instrument-dependent algorithms that are used in ECCC's Data Management System is provided. One outcome of the analysis is the identification of gaps in spatial coverage and data quality that are required to meet user needs. Increased availability of data, including from long-serving manual sites, and an increase in the availability of precipitation type and snowfall amount are identified as improvements that would benefit many users. Other recognized improvements for in situ networks include standardized network procedures, instrument performance adjustments, and improved and sustained access to data and metadata from internal and external networks. Specific to radar, a number of items are recognized that can improve quantitative precipitation estimates. Increased coverage for the radar network and improved methods for assessing and portraying radar data quality would benefit precipitation users.     

基于深度学习的天气雷达回波序列外推及效果分析

天气雷达探测资料是进行强对流天气临近预报的主要参考数据。针对传统雷达回波外推方法中存在资料信息利用率不足和外推时效有限的问题,文中利用神经网络进行雷达回波的外推、利用预测神经网络模型进行2 h以内的回波变化预报。回波外推问题的关键是回波时、空序列预测问题,该网络具有解决时间记忆问题的长、短时记忆单元（Long Short-Term Memory,LSTM）和提取空间特征的卷积模块。应用福建、江苏和河南多年的雷达探测资料构造训练和测试数据集。为消除降水的不平衡和提高对强回波的预报准确率,网络采用带权重的损失函数进行训练。对光流法和预测神经网络进行测试集检验以及个例分析,结果表明,在相同外推时效和检验反射率阈值的情况下,预测神经网络的临界成功指数、命中率均高于光流法,虚警率低于光流法。不同类型降水预测神经网络的SSIM值（structural similarity）均高于光流法,且层状云降水的SSIM值比对流云降水的大。因此,预测神经网络对强回波的预报能力高于光流法;在预报时效性上,预测神经网络模型具有一定的优越性;预测神经网络对层状云降水预报的准确率比对流云降水的高。      

X波段双偏振雷达相态识别与拼图的关键技术

X波段双偏振雷达具有时空分辨率高、易于布网的特点,但散射特性差异和衰减影响使现有S波段雷达的相态识别和拼图算法不适用于X波段双偏振雷达。该文针对X波段相态识别及拼图产品的关键技术开展研究,提出基于准垂直剖面的融化层识别方法、基于数据质量的置信度阈值调整方法、基于统计的隶属函数参数改进方法和基于衰减程度的拼图融合方法。通过对比改进后可有效提升水凝物相态识别结果的可靠性和多雷达拼图结果的合理性。在2016年汛期北京典型个例中,融合后的X波段雷达网与当地S波段业务雷达相比能够提供更精细的回波结构和水凝物相态分布,有效缓解S波段雷达在近处探测能力降低的问题,识别的降雹区与地面观测相符。     

Heavy Precipitation in the Alpine Region (HERA): Areal Rainfall Determination for Flood Warnings Through in-situ Measureme nts, Remote Sensing and Atmospheric Modelling

Summary.  Background and key results of the EU-funded project HERA are presented. The identification of the growing possibilities to use forecast precipitation fields as input for hydrological models is followed by a broad assessment of the state of the art regarding the determination of the atmospheric part of the hydrological cycle, with the geographical focus on the mountainous region of the Alps in the heart of Europe. This includes the construction of (north)Alpine radar composites for nine episodes; a first systematic cross-validation on a daily basis of four operational forecasting models with a trans-national gridded observat ional dataset; several detailed case studies involving research versions of operational forecast models and the latest advances in model resolution and microphysical parameterizations; new algorithms for Doppler radar retrievals over complex terrain; and synthetic modelling studies with governing parameters derived from the selected cases to investigate some basic processes in isolation. Finally, implications for proto-type applicatio ns of forecast areal precipitation fields in the hydrological modelling of mountainous catchments are given. Received April 14, 1999/Revised August 3, 1999     

利用多普勒天气雷达资料对一次暴雨过程的同化模拟

以CAPS（Center for Analysis and Prediction of Storm）研发的ARPS模式（The Advanced Regional Prediction System V5．2．4）为基础,结合我国多普勒雷达资料,模拟2001年7月13日安徽省的一次暴雨过程,采用3DVAR（3-dimensional variational data assimilation）同化方法,做多时次同化雷达资料试验,前一时次模拟的结果作为下一时次的初始场,不断调整。结果表明,加入雷达资料后的风场、湿度场等都有明显调整,可以明显提高3h降水模拟效果;同化的雷达时次越多,对上述各要素场和降水的模拟与实际观测的对应效果越好。     

星载雷达与C波段地基雷达数据一致性个例分析

为提高单部雷达与多部雷达组网探测降水的精度,对地基雷达进行了一致性定标。星载雷达作为标准参考源已应用于S波段天气雷达的一致性定标,但对于C波段天气雷达的适用性仍有待研究。为此,本文选择了位于较高纬度的兰州C波段业务雷达,设计了以星载雷达标定C波段雷达的方法。通过对两个降水个例进行分析发现:定标后的C波段雷达回波强度和降水反演精度均有一定改善。说明采用星载雷达对C波段雷达进行定标也是可行的,这有利于解决西部地区地基雷达组网探测的一致性定标难题,展现了良好的应用前景。     

Satellite- and radar-based investigations of heavy precipitation systems on the southern side of the European Alps

Summary In autumn 1999 during the field phase of the Mesoscale Alpine Programme (MAP), the geostationary satellite Meteosat-6 performed 5-minute rapid scan imagery over central Europe. The rapid scan data of 11 heavy precipitation events are investigated by analyzing the spatial and temporal characteristics of cloud top structures. The objectives are to separate convective from stratiform cloud regions by satellite data alone and to gain insight into the life cycle of heavy precipitation systems. For verification of the satellite-based results, radar data from the operational Mt. Lema C-band radar is interpolated on the spatial grid of the infrared and visible Meteosat images. The interpolated radar data of each single grid cell is then classified by a convective-stratiform algorithm and compared to the analysed rapid scan imagery.The satellite- and radar-based approaches do only rarely produce matching classifications concerning the identification of convective areas. Since convection during the field phase of MAP occurred mostly embedded within stratiform cloud regions, no temporal and spatial characteristics of convective activity within clouds can be systematically derived from satellite imagery. This lack of characteristic cloud top structures prevented the unambiguous identification of typical cloudiness associated with stratiform precipitation. It is one of the major findings of this study, that in several cases being classified as stratiform by radar, strong cloud development is observed in satellite imagery. The preferred area of strong cloud development is located ahead of the Alpine barrier in a precipitation-free atmosphere. Two contrasting examples of life cycles of heavy precipitation systems are given based on the complementary information extracted from satellite and radar data.     

Effects of a Total Solar Eclipse on the Mesoscale Atmospheric Circulation over Europe – A Model Experiment

Summary ?On August the 11th, 1999 Central Europe saw a spectacular astronomical event, a total solar eclipse. We present a model study concerning the meteorological effects of this eclipse in central Europe using the state-of-the-art limited area forecast model Deutschland-Modell DM from the German Weather Service DWD. Under typical summer radiation conditions very strong anomalies in the surface energy flux and temperature in screen height are simulated. The main temperature signal in the lower troposphere is delayed by about one hour with respect to the surface. Furthermore it is connected with a well defined dynamical signal which is reminiscent to a large scale land – sea circulation. The event could be used as a test case for mesoscale atmospheric models. Received February 19, 1999/Revised May 18, 1999     

基于雷达资料的云分析在冰雹云短时预报中的应用

通过ARPS/ADAS云分析系统将雷达反射率因子信息引入到模式的初始场中,并结合中尺度数值模式模拟研究了2008年6月23日发生在北京周边地区的一次冰雹天气过程。结果表明:在初始场中引入雷达反射率因子信息之后,改进了初始场中水凝物信息和温度场,使得初始场更加符合实际大气状况;与未进行云分析试验比较,云分析之后,模式模拟对于雹云产生位置、强度以及移动路径有明显改进,其中3h之内的模拟效果最好;降水降雹提早1h发生,并且降水降雹的峰值也提前出现,明显减少模式spin-up时间。     

CINRAD/SAD双偏振雷达非降水回波识别技术

双偏振雷达观测特征参量（如相关系数、差分反射率等）能有效抑制地物、超折射、电磁干扰、海浪和晴空等非降水回波。在上海南汇WSR-88D双偏振雷达非降水回波识别算法基础上,对我国升级布网且纳入业务运行的CINRAD/SAD双偏振雷达数据进行算法测试、算法模块适应性改进,利用江苏、广东的双偏振雷达观测冰雹、融化层、台风降水及各种杂波个例进行算法检验评估,并在组网拼图中展示质量控制效果。结果表明:总体上算法对非降水回波的识别准确率达到95.2%,降水回波的误判率为2.6%。但对夏秋季节夜晚的大面积晴空回波算法识别准确率低于90%,有待尝试利用深度学习方法改进。     

基于高分辨率高程数据统计分析新一代天气雷达组网的地形遮挡影响

新一代天气雷达由于受到地形限制产生波束遮挡导致波束能量衰减,从而造成雷达探测回波强度偏弱、雷达定量估测降水结果失真,因此对于雷达波束遮挡情况的统计和分析是一项重要的基础研究工作。利用SRTM （Shuttle Radar Topography Mission）数字高程数据对中国目前业务运行的212部新一代天气雷达波束遮挡情况进行模拟计算分析。计算结果包括雷达单站遮蔽角、VCP21模式0.5°、1.5°、2.4°、3.4°、4.3°仰角波束遮挡率、混合扫描及分区混合扫描波束遮挡率、雷达单站探测范围覆盖情况;计算并绘制全国天气雷达组网遮挡率拼图,统计全国天气雷达组网遮挡情况;利用2019年8月广东省11部天气雷达基数据对比验证单站及组网遮挡计算结果。结果表明雷达组网探测面积覆盖率超过70%,整体覆盖效果较好,遮挡计算结果与实际数据对比验证结果高度一致,对雷达数据订正、降水估测等产品具有正贡献。      

雷达雨量计资料用于径流模拟(英)

利用测雨雷达结合稠密和稀疏雨量站网估计流域降水分布,将小同方法获得的降水分布输入降水径流模型TOPMODEL,模拟1998,1999夏季GAME/HUBEX试验区梅山和鲇鱼山集水区的径流,并与实测径流进行比较和分析,结果表明:1)雷达结合集水区内雨量计网模拟径流的精度优于传统的用稠密雨量计网模拟径流的精度;2)利用雷达结合集水区外相对稀疏的雨量计网模拟径流的精度和用集水区内稠密雨量计网模拟径流的精度相当,显示了测雨雷达在径流模拟和洪水预报中极大的应用潜力。     

一次有利于人工增雨作业的锋面降水过程分析

使用常规天气资料、卫星云图和雷达回波资料分析１９９９年６月１３～１４日内蒙古一次锋面降水天气过程的天气条件、卫星云图和雷达回波的特征,对锋面降水云系的分布进行讨论,为人工增雨飞行播撒作业提供科学依据。     

分组Z—I关系及其在淮河流域雷达测雨中应用

本文使用713雷达及其数字化终端,对淮河正阳关以上流域进行了定量测量降雨的试验。用最优化处理方法,按DBZ值大小分组统计,得到了这一地区Z-I关系的序列。然后,用这组关系得到降雨的雷达估算值。试验结果表明,距雷达50－100km之间的区域雷达定量测雨的精度较好。和雨量计测值比较,雷达估算的单站一小时雨量的平均相对误差为46％,单站过程雨量的平均相对误差为30％。雷达定量测雨可以作为常规雨量站网的补充,准实时地提供多种雨情信息。     

湖南人工增雨云型的分析判别与多普勒天气雷达指挥系统的研制应用

对湖南主要人工增雨对象——积云和积层混合云作了多普勒天气雷达回波分析与判别,发现对流云在不同发展阶段回波特征有明显差异,而积层混合云持续时间长,回波特征变化小。综合分析回波强度、回波顶高、含水量、云顶温度、回波移速、回波面积等参数,得出湖南的人工增雨指标和评分规则,并依此建立地面人工增雨多普勒天气雷达指挥系统。它可实现实时指挥,发布作业预警信息以及作业方位角、仰角、用弹量等作业参数指令,结合作业点GPS信息及GIS地理信息将指导产品通过网络分发到各作业炮点。试验表明,它能有效提高对作业时机的预判能力、对作业对象的选择能力以及对实时作业的指导能力。     

多普勒雷达资料同化的稀疏化方式对暴雨过程的影响研究

利用中尺度非静力WRF(Weather Research and Forecasting)模式及其三维变分同化系统,对2007年7月淮河流域的一次强降雨过程进行多普勒雷达径向速度资料的三维变分同化试验,重点考察雷达资料的不同稀疏化方式对同化结果以及对暴雨数值模拟的影响。结果表明:同化多普勒雷达径向速度资料使得模式初始风场包含了更丰富的中尺度特征信息,有效调整了初始场的环流结构,能够改善模式对暴雨过程的模拟效果;以不同的稀疏化处理方式同化多普勒雷达径向速度资料对分析场会产生不同的影响,进而影响模式的降水预报效果,本次试验中当极坐标网格径向分辨率取10 km的时候降水过程的预报效果最好。     

气溶胶对云宏微观特性和降水影响的研究进展

气溶胶—云—降水相互作用是当今大气科学研究的热点和前沿问题.概述性地回顾了气溶胶对云宏微观特性和降水影响的研究进展,分别讨论了气溶胶对层状云、对流云等典型云系的动力和微物理过程的影响,总结了国内外研究关于气溶胶对云宏微观特性影响的可能的物理解释.回顾外场观测及数值研究表明,气溶胶对云液态水含量、地面降水及光学厚度的影响...     

Kinematics and Microphysical Characteristics of the First Intense Rainfall Convective Storm Observed by Jiangsu Polarimetric Radar Network

The polarimetric radar network in Jiangsu Province has just been operationalized since 2020. The first intense precipitation event observed by this polarimetric radar network and disdrometer occurred during August 28-29, 2020 and caused severe flooding and serious damage in eastern Jiangsu Province. The microphysics and kinetics for this heavy precipitation convective storm is diagnosed in this study, in order to promote the application of this polarimetric radar network. Drop size distribution (DSD) of this event is estimated from measurements of a ground disdrometer, and the corresponding three-dimensional atmospheric microphysical features are obtained from the multiple polarimetric radars. According to features of updraft and lighting, the evolution of the convective storm is divided into four stages: developing, mature with lightning, mature without lightning and dissipating. The DSD of this event is featured by a large number of raindrops and a considerable number of large raindrops. The microphysical characteristics are similar to those of warm-rain process, and ice-phase microphysical processes are active in the mature stages. The composite vertical structure of the convective storm indicates that deep ZDR and KDP columns coincide with strong updrafts during both mature stages. The hierarchical microphysical structure retrieved by the Hydrometeor Identification Algorithm (HID) shows that depositional growth has occurred above the melting level, and aggregation is the most widespread ice-phase process at the -10℃ level or higher. During negative lightning activity, the presence of strongest updrafts and a large amount of ice-phase graupel by riming between the 0℃ and -35℃ layers generate strong negative electric fields within the cloud. These convective storms are typical warm clouds with very high precipitation efficiency, which cause high concentration of raindrops, especially the presence of large raindrops within a short period of time. The ice-phase microphysical processes above the melting layer also play an important role in the triggering and enhancing of precipitation.     

LLM – a nonhydrostatic model applied to high-resolving simulations of turbulent fluxes over heterogeneous terrain

Summary ?At the Deutscher Wetterdienst (DWD) an internal project named LITFASS was running to determine the representative turbulent fluxes of heat and momentum over heterogeneous land surfaces by observation and simulation. The project took advantage of the infrastructure of the Research Division at the DWD, where model research capacity is combined with the measurements made at and around the Meteorological Observatory Lindenberg. The paper describes the simulation component of the LITFASS-project. It consists of a high-resolving model, derived from the new operational non-hydrostatic, compressible Lokal-Modell (LM), which is denoted LLM (LITFASS-Lokal-Modell). The integration area covers the lower atmosphere in the vertical up to 3000 m with 39 model layers. The horizontal size of the integration area with 145 × 145 grid points (horizontal mesh width Δs = 96.5 m) corresponds to a typical grid box of a meso-scale model. The LLM has to operate under real meteorological conditions. Therefore, the LLM is driven by time-dependent measured vertical profiles of wind, temperature and humidity and surface-based measurements (of radiation, precipitation, soil properties) supported by satellite information. The profiles are available for a great variety of weather situations occurring during the simulation period (1–20 June 1998). First model results from extended 24 hour-integrations against different kinds of measurements are discussed. They reveal the LLM to become a promising validation instrument, from which a systematic, sustainable validation system can be established beyond LITFASS for improving parameterization schemes in the NWP models of the DWD. Received July 18, 2001; revised March 15, 2002; accepted May 30, 2002